The Franco Era (1939-1975): A Historical Overview

The Franco Era (1939-1975)

Francisco Franco and the Rise of the Regime

Francisco Franco, born in El Ferrol in 1892, embarked on a military career at a young age. His experiences in the African campaigns shaped his character, instilling in him a strong sense of order and tenacity. While his political views remained largely unknown before the Spanish Civil War, he emerged as a prominent figure with strong anti-communist and ultra-nationalist sentiments. During the war, his religiosity and a self-perceived messianic role became increasingly pronounced.

Franco’s military background heavily influenced his leadership style. He governed as a “captain,” granting his ministers limited freedom akin to that of subordinates on a battlefield. This approach, while effective in maintaining control, also hindered his administration’s expertise and adaptability.

Despite his military persona, Franco possessed political acumen. His composure and sense of timing, though sometimes frustrating to his colleagues, often allowed him to resolve complex issues through strategic inaction.

The Nature of the Franco Regime

Franco’s regime was a personal dictatorship that evolved significantly over time. Initially marked by severe repression, it gradually softened its totalitarian grip. A key characteristic was the presence of a limited pluralism within the regime’s framework, accommodating various factions such as Falangists, Carlists, Catholics, and monarchists.

The regime’s trajectory was heavily influenced by the international context. Had the Axis powers triumphed in World War II, it’s likely that the Franco regime would have embraced fascism more fully.

The Post-Civil War Period and Totalitarian Features

The post-civil war era, extending well into the 1940s, witnessed a distinctly totalitarian regime. Internal disagreements arose regarding Spain’s involvement in World War II. The repression was brutal, surpassing that experienced in France and Italy after the war. An estimated 30,000 executions were carried out, with the actual number of death sentences significantly higher.

Political institutions under Franco’s rule were largely symbolic. The 1942 Courts and the National Council held minimal power. The Falange, with its 1939 statutes, aimed to exert totalitarian control over the lives of Spaniards. The 1938 press laws not only enabled censorship but also allowed the government to appoint newspaper directors.

However, the regime’s totalitarianism faced limitations. The Church, for instance, prevented the signing of a cultural treaty with Nazi Germany, and the army resisted the establishment of a one-party militia.

Domestically, tensions simmered between the Falange and less fascist elements, including monarchists. The Falange’s leader, Serrano Suñol, advocated for a system closely aligned with the Italian fascist model. Following a Falangist attack on the Minister of War, Valera, Serrano was dismissed, and the Falange’s influence diminished under Franco’s direct control.

Foreign Policy and World War II

Spain’s foreign policy during this period was inextricably linked to the unfolding of World War II. Initially neutral, Franco considered aligning with the Axis powers following their early victories in 1940. He hoped to secure territorial gains, primarily at the expense of France. However, meetings with Hitler and Mussolini failed to yield the desired concessions, and Spain remained non-belligerent.

Franco’s decision against intervention was influenced by several factors, including Hitler’s unwillingness to meet his demands and Spain’s dire economic situation. The war, though not directly involving Spain, had a devastating impact on its population and economy. Industrial production plummeted, and the autarkic policies adopted by the regime exacerbated the hardships.

Isolation and the Path to Recovery

The period between 1945 and the late 1950s was characterized by international isolation, the shedding of overt fascist institutions, the rise and fall of opposition movements, and the beginnings of a shift in economic policy.

Spain’s diplomatic difficulties stemmed from its collaboration with the Axis powers and the persistence of Franco’s authoritarian rule. In 1945, Spain was denied membership in the United Nations. The situation worsened in 1946 when France closed its border and major powers called for Franco’s removal, the abolition of the Falange, and a transition to a liberal regime. The UN voted to expel Spain from international agencies and withdraw ambassadors from Madrid.

The Franco regime found support only from Salazar’s Portugal and Perón’s Argentina. However, with the onset of the Cold War in 1948, Western democracies began to view Franco’s Spain as a lesser threat compared to the Soviet Union. Spain gradually gained acceptance into international organizations.

The failure of the opposition, particularly the monarchist movement, contributed to Franco’s continued grip on power. The restoration of the monarchy seemed imminent in 1946, but Franco’s refusal to step down and external pressure weakened the monarchists’ position. The memory of the civil war also deterred conservative sectors from supporting change.

Franco maintained his regime’s political structure while adapting its external image. In 1945, the regime presented itself as an “organic democracy,” a system where popular participation occurred through “natural organic” entities rather than political parties. Some constitutional provisions were introduced, such as the Fuero de los Españoles (a bill of rights that was not fully implemented). The 1945 Referendum Act served primarily to approve the Law of Succession, which granted Franco control over any decision regarding the monarchy.

International recognition of Spain began to improve in 1953 with the signing of a concordat with the Holy See and pacts with the United States, which included the establishment of American military bases in Spain. While not a member of NATO, Spain became increasingly integrated into the Western defense system.

Economic conditions also started to improve, aided by American economic assistance and the implementation of a more liberalized economic approach. The Stabilization Plan of 1959 marked a significant step towards further economic development.

Economic Development and Liberalization

During the 1960s, economic development became the dominant force in Spanish life. Development plans and a new economic orthodoxy played a role, but Spain’s geographical location also proved advantageous. By 1970, the arrival of 24 million tourists, the liberalization of foreign investment, and emigration contributed to a rise in per capita income and a more egalitarian society.

In contrast to the economic transformation, political liberalization proceeded at a much slower pace. This created a disconnect between the economic reality and the legislative framework. While some social changes were introduced, such as the Organic Law of the State in 1967, the Press Law of 1965, and the decriminalization of strikes in 1966, these measures were limited in scope.

A crucial development during this period was the appointment of Juan Carlos de Borbón as Franco’s heir. A new opposition emerged, comprising students, Christian Democrats, the Socialist Party (PSOE), and the Communist Party (PCE), which underwent a significant leadership renewal in 1972.

The Late Franco Era and Transition

The final years of Franco’s rule were marked by his physical decline and the growing influence of the opposition. While terrorism posed no serious threat to the regime, some actions by groups like ETA had a significant impact. The harsher the repression, the more young people were drawn to ETA.

The assassination of Admiral Carrero Blanco, Franco’s first appointed Prime Minister, in December 1973 proved to be a turning point. Carrero had been a close advisor to Franco for decades and his murder coincided with Franco’s declining health, leading to increased influence from his family. The regime struggled to adapt to the changing society, as evidenced by the appointment of Carlos Arias Navarro as Prime Minister under the influence of Franco’s relatives.

Arias Navarro’s government was characterized by unfulfilled promises and a failure to address pressing issues. The oil crisis of 1973, the execution of five terrorists in September 1975 following a flawed trial, and the Sahara issue further complicated the situation.

In October 1975, Franco’s long illness culminated in his death, and Juan Carlos was installed as head of state. In the preceding months, Juan Carlos had become acquainted with the concept of a democratic transition. Spanish society had undergone a profound transformation, and by 1975, the Franco regime was the only remaining right-wing authoritarian government in Europe after the fall of similar regimes in Greece and Portugal. While a transition to democracy seemed inevitable, the path ahead was not without its challenges.