The Foundations of Empiricism and the Limits of Human Knowledge
Empiricism: A Philosophical Tradition Opposed to Rationalism
Empiricism is a philosophical tradition opposed to rationalism, which often emphasizes the certainty of mathematics.
Modern science emphasized observation, action, and experimentation. The need to rely on observation and experimentation, especially when moving beyond pre-scientific explanations, finds its justification in the main thesis of empiricism:
- All our knowledge about facts is based on perception or sense experience.
The ultimate source of all our ideas and knowledge is experience. The mind is originally like a blank paper (tabula rasa), and sensory experience gradually fills it with content. This thesis involves the denial of the existence of innate ideas (a characteristic of rationalism).
Knowledge Acquisition and the Role of Experience
Empiricists argue that we can acquire knowledge only through experience and within the limits of experience. Sciences like mathematics do not provide knowledge about how things are, but merely establish relationships between “ideas.”
A science seeking to expand our knowledge about reality must be based on experience, not just pure reasoning. Reasoning applied to the analysis of experience can provide *probable* knowledge, but empirical experience remains the sole judge.
Core Philosophical Questions of Empiricism
Empiricism forces us to reflect on two fundamental questions regarding the Origin and Limits of Human Knowledge:
- What is the origin of our knowledge or ideas?
- How far can our claim to know extend?
The Origin of Ideas: Experience vs. Innate Principles
The first issue addresses the origin of our ideas: All our ideas come from experience.
This stands against rationalism, which holds that the human mind originally contains a set of principles or innate ideas, and that contact with things (experience) is merely an opportunity for these ideas to come to light.
Empiricism asserts that the sole source of ideas is experience. Empiricists distinguish two general kinds of experience:
- Experience referring to external objects (Sensation).
- Experience corresponding to the operations of the mind or self (Reflection/Internal).
The Limits of Knowledge
The second question concerns the limits of human knowledge: The human capacity to know is not unlimited; experience is its boundary.
Experience is the ultimate source of our ideas and the ultimate foundation for the validity of sciences related to events. (As often stated: reason without experience is blind when it comes to knowing the truth.) Trying to provide an understanding of what is beyond experience is considered a doomed enterprise.
Certainty Levels of Knowledge
- Mathematical knowledge is certain.
- Physical or natural science knowledge is probable.
- Metaphysics yields no knowledge at all (it is considered illusory knowledge).
Empiricism vs. Rationalism: Points of Contrast and Agreement
Empiricism proposes a new concept of reason: one that is experience-dependent and limited by experience itself. Rationalism, conversely, emphasized the limitless possibilities of reason and underestimated the role of experience in acquiring knowledge.
However, they agree on the idea that knowledge does not lie directly in the things themselves, but in the *ideas*—which are representations of objects in the mind.
Empiricism suggests that the mind is passive in receiving ideas or impressions. Its activity is reduced to establishing a series of relationships or connections between them:
- Relations between Abstract Ideas: Mathematical sciences.
- Relationships between Facts: Empirical sciences.