The First World War: Origins, Fronts, and Conclusion

Posted on Nov 26, 2025 in History

The Belligerents of World War I

The Central Powers and The Allies

The conflict involved two major groups:

  • The Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, The Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria (other countries joined later).
  • The Allies (or Triple Entente): France, Russia, the United Kingdom (UK), and Serbia (the US and other countries joined later).

Underlying Causes of the First World War

Imperialism and Colonial Conflicts

Competition among European countries for imperialist expansion fueled tensions (e.g., the Congress of Berlin, 1885). The incorporation of Germany as a major power intensified existing conflicts.

The Moroccan Crises (1905 and 1911)

  • 1905 Crisis: Germany supported the Moroccans against France. At the Algeciras Conference (1906), Spain and France agreed on a protectorate in Morocco, forcing Germany to back down.
  • 1911 Crisis (Agadir): Germany sent gunboats to Agadir. France received support from the UK but had to cede territory in Cameroon to Germany.

Nationalism and Territorial Disputes

Nationalist aspirations for independence clashed with the defense of traditional empires. Key disputes included:

  • France claimed Alsace and Lorraine from Germany (lost in the Franco-Prussian War, 1870–71).
  • Italy and Austria-Hungary disputed the territories of Istria, Trentino, and Dalmatia.

Pan-Germanism and Economic Rivalries

  • Pan-Germanism: A movement advocating the unification of all German and Germanic-speaking peoples into a single nation-state (stretching from Central Europe to the Caucasus). This ideology was highly influential in German politics during the 19th century.
  • Economic Rivalries: Significant industrial competition existed primarily between Germany and the UK.

The Balkan Wars and Regional Instability

The Balkans were a major flashpoint, marked by confrontation between the Ottoman Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Serbia and Russia sought control of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits to gain access to Mediterranean ports.

  • 1908: Bosnia-Herzegovina was annexed by Austria-Hungary.
  • 1912–1913 (The Balkan Wars): Serbia, allied with Russia, emerged victorious. Fearing a Serbian uprising, Austria-Hungary sought support from Germany.

The Spark of War: The Sarajevo Assassination

The immediate cause of the conflict was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary) in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914. He was killed by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist student belonging to the terrorist group known as the Black Hand.

Global Imperialism: Colonial Empires Divide the World

The extent of colonial holdings demonstrated the global stakes:

  • British Empire: Controlled Canada (America), the Cairo-Capetown axis (Africa), India and Tibet (Asia), concessions in China, Australia, New Zealand, and various naval bases.
  • French Empire: Held French North West Africa and Cochinchina.
  • Russian Empire: Expanded towards the Pacific Ocean, reaching Manchuria.
  • African Colonies:
    • Belgium: Acquired the Congo (initially Leopold II’s personal possession, later ceded to the country).
    • Portugal: Angola and Mozambique.
    • Spain: Rio de Oro and Equatorial Guinea.
    • Italy: Libya and Eritrea.
    • Germany: Togo, Cameroon, German West Africa, and German East Africa.

The Conflict Phases of World War I

The War of Movement (1914)

The Western Front

The German strategy relied on the Schlieffen Plan: rapidly defeat France and then shift troops to the Eastern Front against Russia. Germany invaded Belgium and Luxembourg, forcing the French government to flee to Bordeaux. However, French and British armies halted the German advance at the Battle of the Marne.

The Eastern Front

German Generals Hindenburg and Ludendorff achieved significant victories at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes. Despite these losses, the Russians recovered and reached the border of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In the Balkans, Serbia successfully stopped the initial Austro-Hungarian advance.

Trench Warfare (1915–1917)

The war devolved into a stalemate characterized by extensive lines of trenches stretching from Switzerland to the North Sea, protected by machine guns and barbed wire. Both sides adopted this defensive strategy. The tactic involved attempting to break these lines using bombs, artillery, and tanks, resulting in massive casualties.

  • Battle of Verdun (February–December 1916): A prolonged war of attrition, known as the longest and second bloodiest battle. General Pétain enforced strict discipline to maintain supply routes.
  • Battle of the Somme (June–November 1916): The bloodiest battle of the war, resulting in over 1 million casualties. French and British forces fought the Germans, but neither side achieved a decisive victory.

The Final Stages of the War (1917–1918)

Key Battles and Campaigns

  • Italian Front: Battle of Caporetto (October 1917) and the decisive Battle of Vittorio Veneto (October–November 1918).
  • The Balkans (Gallipoli Campaign): The Dardanelles Campaign (April 1915–January 1916), led by Churchill, was a failure. Allied forces (Britain and France) launched a naval attack followed by an amphibious landing aimed at capturing Constantinople. The naval attack was repelled, and the land campaign was abandoned after eight months and heavy casualties, immobilizing British troops in Greece until 1917.

Russia Withdraws from the Conflict

Following the Bolshevik Revolution, Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany and withdrew from the war. This treaty resulted in significant territorial losses for Russia:

  • Poland and Lithuania were ceded to Germany.
  • Finland, Ukraine, Estonia, and Latvia gained independence.

Maritime Warfare and US Entry

In 1917, Germany intensified its naval blockade against the UK using unrestricted submarine warfare. The sinking of the US ocean liner Lusitania by a German U-boat served as a major pretext for the United States to join the war, transforming the conflict into a truly global one.

The Allied Victory and Conclusion (1918)

The Allies launched a coordinated offensive on all fronts, leading to the progressive surrender of the Central Powers:

  • The Allies defeated Austria-Hungary on the Eastern Front.
  • Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire called for an armistice.
  • Germans were defeated on the Western Front in the Second Battle of the Marne.
  • The Kaiser abdicated, and Germany surrendered.

The First World War officially finished on November 11, 1918.