The Fall of Franco: Opposition Movements and the End of the Dictatorship (1939–1975)
Opposition to the Franco Regime
Postwar Opposition (1939–1959)
After the war, opposition groups, primarily driven by the PCE (Spanish Communist Party), continued their activities. The Maquis operated between 1944 and 1949, hiding in major mountain ranges. They attempted to incite the population against Franco and even prepared an invasion from France through the Aran Valley, hoping for support from democratic nations. This invasion ultimately failed, and the groups were dismantled by 1949. Political parties and unions were forced underground or into exile.
Opposition Movements in the 1960s and 1970s
Strikes and worker and student demonstrations increased significantly against the regime, driven primarily by the PCE in cities like Madrid, Barcelona, and Bilbao. New clandestine associations emerged:
- CCOO (Comisiones Obreras)
- Student organizations like the FLP and ASU emerged to oppose the Falangist SEU.
- ETA (Euskadi Ta Askatasuna) appeared.
- Cultural and neighborhood associations were promoted to demand better services and freedoms.
In 1962, the Contubernio de Múnich (Conspiracy of Munich) was a secret meeting of national leaders agreeing on a plan against the regime. Some participants were arrested.
In the 1970s, the Catalan nationalist grouping ACC (Assemblea de Catalunya) appeared. Shortly after, two new organizations demanding democracy emerged:
- The Democratic Platform (socialist ideology)
- The Democratic Board (communist democratic character)
Both unified in 1975, agreeing on 10 points that would form the basis for a future democratic government.
Crisis and Collapse of the Franco Regime (1973–1975)
These two years saw a series of events that determined the end of the dictatorship:
- The Global Economic Crisis of 1973: Caused by the Arab-Israeli War, this crisis led to a dramatic rise in oil prices. This resulted in rising prices for industrial products, company closures, and layoffs. Unemployment increased significantly, fueling social conflicts against the regime.
- Assassination of Carrero Blanco: The ETA terrorist attack in December 1973 assassinated Prime Minister Luis Carrero Blanco, Franco’s confidant and likely political successor.
- Division of Francoist Leaders: This assassination divided Franco’s leaders into two factions: 1) The so-called Inmovilistas (Immobile), faithful to Francoist tradition (e.g., Carlos Arias Navarro), and 2) The Aperturistas (Reformists), who favored dialogue with the moderate opposition to initiate political change (e.g., José María de Areilza, Manuel Fraga Iribarne, Garrigues Walker, Torcuato Fernández Miranda).
- Franco’s Illness: In 1974, Franco showed the first symptoms of illness and required hospitalization.
- Intensified Opposition: The opposition, especially the more revolutionary groups, intensified their actions against the regime with continued kidnappings and attacks on political figures and security forces.
- The Anti-Terrorism Act of 1975: In response, President Carlos Arias Navarro’s government enacted the Anti-Terrorism Act of 1975, which included the death penalty for terrorists. Its application that year led to the condemnation of five activists from ETA and FRAP, sparking widespread international protests against the regime.
- The Green March: In 1975, the “Green March” on the Spanish Sahara began—a Moroccan civil invasion of the territory. U.S. support for the Moroccan government of Hassan II prevented a war between Spain and Morocco. Spain eventually withdrew from the Sahara.
- Franco’s Death: Franco’s death on November 20, 1975, at the age of 83, marked the end of the regime and the beginning of the democratic transition.