The Evolution of Romance Languages: From Latin to Catalan
T1-Roman and the Romance languages
Romania, a term used to refer to territories that were once part of the Roman Empire, is home to languages that are derived from Latin, known as Romance languages. However, some territories that were once part of Romania lost their Romance languages and adopted languages from different families. New territories were later added to Romania, where Romance languages were expanded (e.g., South America, Quebec).
Romance languages include Galician-Portuguese, Spanish, Catalan, Occitan, French, Sardinian, Romansh, Italian, Romanian, and Dalmatian (extinct).
Language embryos are language varieties that have not reached full standardization and have been absorbed or influenced by a neighboring dominant language.
Vulgar Latin
Romance languages are not derived from the Latin used by Cicero, Horace, or Virgil, but rather from Vulgar Latin, a colloquial linguistic variety that was permeable to innovation and incorporated Germanic influences, departing from the norms of classical Latin.
The linguistic fragmentation of Romania
Factors:
- Substrate: The languages spoken in each territory before the arrival of the Romans left their mark and influenced the establishment of Latin.
- Origin and social dialect of colonists: The characteristics of Latin implemented throughout the empire varied due to the social and geographical origins of the settlers.
- Intensity of Romanization: The Romans did not establish themselves throughout the empire with equal force. In some areas, their presence was strong and erased previous cultures, while in others, Romanization was more superficial and faded with the fall of the empire.
- Superstrate: Subsequent linguistic contributions varied across territories. In some cases, influences significantly altered the Romance language (e.g., French), while in others, they were more superficial (e.g., Catalan).
The division of Romania
The Romance languages are divided into two major groups:
- Western: Portuguese, Spanish, Catalan, Occitan, French, Sardinian, Romansh
- Eastern: Italian, Romanian
This division is based on the different treatment of voiceless stops and plurals.
T4 Training of Catalan
Linguistic influences of pre-Roman peoples
Latin was influenced by languages spoken in these lands before the arrival of the Romans, such as Iberian, Basque, and Celtic. These languages left traces in Latin, and contact between Latin and these pre-Roman languages introduced new traits and characteristics.
Stages in the configuration of the pre-Roman world:
- Arrival of Indo-European peoples: This invasion occurred in two groups. The first took place between the 10th and 7th centuries BC and corresponds to the Urnenfelder culture. The second, between the 11th and 5th centuries BC, brought the arrival of people known as Celts.
- Contact with people of higher culture: the Greeks and Phoenicians: From the 7th century BC, Greeks and Phoenicians established settlements on the coast due to trade activities. The Greeks founded Empuries and Roses, while the Phoenicians occupied the island of Ibiza. Contact with these cultures contributed to the flourishing of Iberian culture from the 6th century.
- Indigenous peoples and the formation of Iberian culture: The background of these indigenous lands was not uniform. Two distinct cultures emerged: the Iberian civilization and the Basque-based culture. These cultures manifested in different languages.
All roads lead to Rome
The fall of the Roman Empire in 476 AD marked a period of deep Romanization in our lands. The introduction of Latin in conquered territories further solidified the process. The establishment of legionnaires and merchants played a crucial role in turning cities into centers of Latin influence.
The process of Romanization led to a shift from bilingualism to monolingual Latin. After the 4th century AD, inscriptions in Iberian languages no longer appear.
The people of the north: The Visigoths
Germanic languages acted as a superstrate on Romance languages, influencing their evolution. The Visigoths, a Germanic people who had already undergone some Romanization, attempted to establish a kingdom but failed to create a solid political organization. Their gradual adoption of Latin, conversion to Catholicism, and unification under the Liber Iudiciorum promoted integration between the two communities. The influence of Germanic superstrate on Catalan is not significant, with most Germanisms incorporated through Vulgar Latin. Notable vocabulary related to the military world was borrowed from Frankish.
People in the south: the Arabs
The arrival of Muslims marked a turning point in the political and cultural orientation of the Iberian Peninsula. The Muslim invasion led to the birth of peninsular nations, and Catalan lands were incorporated into the Carolingian Empire. The influence of the Arabs varied depending on the duration and intensity of their rule in Old Catalonia. In New Catalonia, their presence lasted over a century, resulting in varying degrees of Arabization.
Arabs and Arabic
- Mozarabic: Christians living in Muslim territory
- Mozarabic language: A Romance language influenced by Arabic
Variations in dialects spoken in these territories are called consecutive (due to reforestation). Variants in the Principality are called constituent dialects, resulting from the direct evolution of Latin.
THE CATALAN MIDDLE AGES
From Latin to Catalan
From the 7th to 8th centuries, the fragmentation of Vulgar Latin in Romania became significant, leading to the emergence of different languages. These languages were primarily oral, with writing reserved for Latin. The Middle Ages saw a divergence from classical Latin.
The Council of Tours (813) marked the first written testimony of Catalan, along with the Oaths of Strasbourg in French. During this period, Catalan society experienced a language conflict between Latin and Catalan, the written and spoken languages. The society underwent significant economic and political expansion outside ecclesiastical supervision.
The earliest texts in Catalan
The first documents written entirely in Catalan date back to the second half of the 12th century. These texts fall within two dominant areas of medieval life: law and religion. The first evidence of Catalan is a translation of a fragment of the Visigothic law code, Liber Iudiciorum.
The second Catalan document from the 12th century is the Homilies d’Organyà (passages from the Gospel).
The work of a genius: Ramon Llull
Ramon Llull’s contribution to the consolidation of Catalan is unparalleled in any other Romance language. The Majorcan writer undertook the enormous task of codifying the language at both syntactic and lexical levels. He created an abundant lexicon of approximately 7,000 words. Llull was the first author to break the hegemony of Latin as the vehicle for scientific and humanistic disciplines.
In addition to Catalan, Llull wrote in three other languages: Latin, Occitan, and Arabic. His choice of these languages was influenced by his desire to access the rich Arab cultural and scientific heritage and to spread his ideas among Muslim believers.
Territorial expansion and consolidation of language: the chronicles
From 1213, the political and economic interests of the Crown of Aragon shifted towards the Mediterranean. The process of territorial integration paralleled the expansion of the language.
Language and power: Foreign Ministry
The Foreign Ministry, responsible for the bureaucracy of the Kingdom of Aragon, maintained a close relationship with power. It played a decisive role in resolving the conflict between Latin and the vernacular language. The scribes of the Chancellor were skilled in writing in Latin, Catalan, and Aragonese.
The fifteenth century: a period of claroscurs
Catalan territory experienced a particular sociolinguistic situation that affected the world of poetry. By the mid-15th century, the language conflicts with Latin and Occitan had subsided. Catalan literature entered its golden age.