The Evolution of Europe in the Early 20th Century: Politics, Movements, and Imperialism
Evolution of the Second International
The Second International, a global organization of socialist parties, played a significant role in the growing socialist movement. Its Constitution reflected the widespread presence of socialism in national parliaments, necessitating coordination of political and legislative projects. The first International Conference of Women Socialists (1907) highlighted the movement’s influence on feminism, while the creation of the International Federation of Socialist Youth that same year demonstrated its reach among younger generations.
The Second International faced challenges with the rise of ministerialism and revisionism, which advocated for collaboration with governments and a gradual approach to socialism. The colonial question was also widely debated, particularly at the Congress of Stuttgart (1907).
A recurring theme from 1900 onward was the opposition to a looming European war, which eventually erupted in 1914 as World War I.
Anarchism
The anarchist movement remained strong in Europe and Russia, particularly in Spain, where it enjoyed support from industrial workers and agricultural laborers. The National Confederation of Labor, formed in 1910, consolidated anarchism’s presence in the Spanish labor movement.
Anarcocomunisme, led by Piotr A. Kropotkin, advocated for revolutionary collective action and opposed unions, while Enrico Malatesta defended individual terrorism as a propaganda strategy. Several anarchist terrorist attacks occurred in Europe between 1894 and 1900.
Anarcho-syndicalism, combining anarchist goals with everyday union practices, gained increasing prominence.
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom maintained a parliamentary monarchy with a peaceful alternation of power between the Conservative and Liberal parties. Parliament consisted of the House of Commons, elected by a wide electorate, and the House of Lords, reserved for nobility and clergy.
The Irish question remained a major challenge for British policy. In 1921, following World War I, the British government recognized the formation of the Free State of Ireland.
Germany
Chancellor Otto von Bismarck consolidated German unification, strengthened Prussia’s leadership, and pursued a policy against the Catholic Church. He also isolated France through a system of military alliances, culminating in the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy.
France
The Dreyfus affair, involving the wrongful imprisonment of a Jewish army officer, exposed deep divisions within French society. The Third Republic achieved significant progress in public education, democracy, and the separation of church and state.
Austria-Hungary
After the Austro-Prussian War, Austria implemented the dual monarchy, satisfying Hungarian nationalist aspirations.
European Imperialism
Europe experienced a second phase of imperial expansion from 1880 onward, characterized by the total domination of African, Asian, and Oceanic territories by European states and armies.
British Empire
The British Empire, already vast in 1880, expanded rapidly from 1882 with the occupation of Egypt. It aimed to control communication routes, secure access to resources, and establish white settler colonies.
The empire was organized into domains, colonies, protectorates, and settler colonies. Settlers focused on producing raw materials and foodstuffs for the metropolis, while colonial industries supplied the empire’s markets.