The Enlightenment, Industrial Revolution, and Romanticism in Europe

Posted on Aug 15, 2024 in History

The Old Regime and the Enlightenment

The Old Regime

This term, used by revolutionaries to describe the pre-French Revolution era, refers to the period between the 15th and 18th centuries. The political system was characterized by absolute monarchy, an agrarian economy, rigid social stratification, and the significant influence of religion in life and culture.

The Enlightenment

In the 18th century, the Enlightenment, an ideological movement originating in France, challenged the ideas of the Old Regime. Key principles of the Enlightenment included:

  • Faith in Human Reason: Reason was seen as the light that could illuminate ignorance and superstition.
  • Progress through Scientific Advancements: The belief that scientific progress would contribute to human happiness.
  • Criticism of the Old Regime: Absolutism and social stratification were criticized, and religious intolerance was condemned. New moral values based on reason were advocated.

Dissemination of Enlightenment Principles

These ideas spread throughout Europe and America through various channels:

  • Salons: Private social gatherings where cultural and intellectual exchange took place.
  • The Media: Printed materials played a crucial role in disseminating Enlightenment ideas.
  • Encyclopedia: Collaborative works like the Encyclopédie, edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d’Alembert, compiled and disseminated knowledge.

Key Enlightenment Thinkers and Philosophers

  • Denis Diderot: Emphasized the power of reason.
  • Marquis de Condorcet: Highlighted the importance of education.
  • Paul-Henri Thiry, Baron d’Holbach: Argued that religion hindered freedom.
  • Voltaire: Advocated for limiting the king’s power through a parliament to prevent abuses of authority.
  • Montesquieu: Championed the separation of powers to safeguard liberty.
  • Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Believed that sovereignty resided in the people.

Enlightened Despotism

This system of government combined absolute rule with Enlightenment ideas. The famous quote, “Everything for the people, but without the people,” encapsulates the paternalistic approach of enlightened despots.

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution refers to the period of significant industrial development that began in Britain in the 18th century.

Factors Contributing to the Industrial Revolution in Britain

Population Growth

  • Declining death rates, due to improvements in hygiene and nutrition, led to population growth in Europe, particularly in Britain.
  • This growth fueled demand and the need for a larger workforce.

Agricultural Revolution

  • Agriculture shifted from subsistence farming to a profit-driven enterprise.
  • Enclosure Acts consolidated land into larger, privately owned plots, leading to investment in new agricultural techniques and increased productivity.

Trade

  • Improved transportation facilitated trade within Britain.
  • Foreign trade expanded.
  • The growth of trade and industry led to the development of banking and credit systems.

Fernando VII and the Spanish Empire

Three Periods of Fernando VII’s Reign

  1. Absolutist Period (1814-1820): Fernando dissolved the Cortes (parliament) and persecuted liberal thinkers.
  2. Liberal Triennium (1820-1823): An uprising led by Rafael de Riego restored the Constitution of 1812. This period ended with the intervention of the Holy Alliance, which restored Fernando to absolute power.
  3. Ominous Decade (1823-1833): Marked by repression against liberals and a succession crisis. Fernando attempted to abolish the Salic Law to allow his daughter to inherit the throne, leading to conflict with his brother, Don Carlos.

Spanish American Wars of Independence

During Fernando VII’s reign, Spain’s American colonies fought for independence. Led by figures like Simón Bolívar, Antonio José de Sucre, and José de San Martín, and aided by Britain and the United States, the colonies achieved independence by 1825, with the exception of Cuba and Puerto Rico.

Romanticism

Emerging in the early 19th century, Romanticism was a reaction against the Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason and order. It emphasized:

  • Individualism and Emotion: Romanticism celebrated the individual spirit and prioritized feelings over reason.
  • Imagination and Creativity: It valued imagination, creativity, and fantasy.

Themes and Expressions of Romanticism

  • Themes: Love, nature, the sublime, death, legends, and passion.
  • Literature: Prominent Romantic writers included Lord Byron, Victor Hugo, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, and Mariano José de Larra.
  • Architecture: Inspired by historical and legendary styles, with a focus on the Neo-Gothic and the use of new materials like glass and iron.
  • Painting: Characterized by expressive brushstrokes, vibrant colors, and dramatic scenes depicting historical events, legends, and mythology. Notable Romantic painters included Théodore Géricault (e.g., “The Raft of the Medusa”) and Eugène Delacroix (e.g., “Liberty Leading the People”).
  • Music: Romantic composers included Ludwig van Beethoven, Hector Berlioz, Franz Schubert, Frédéric Chopin, and Richard Wagner.

Realism

Emerging in the mid-19th century, Realism focused on portraying everyday life and the experiences of ordinary people. It emphasized:

  • Objective Representation: Realist artists and writers aimed to depict the world as it was, without idealization or romanticization.
  • Detail and Description: Realism often employed detailed descriptions to create a sense of authenticity.

Expressions of Realism

  • Literature: Realist authors like Stendhal and Charles Dickens provided social commentary through their portrayals of contemporary society.
  • Painting: Realist painters like Jean-François Millet (e.g., “The Gleaners” and “The Angelus”) and Gustave Courbet (e.g., “The Stone Breakers”) depicted the lives of peasants and laborers.