The Enlightenment, French Revolution, and Industrial Revolution
1) Enlightenment and Absolutism: Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Voltaire
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment was a philosophical, literary, and scientific movement that developed in the 18th century. It emphasized three core ideas:
- Reason applied to all fields.
- Progress achieved through scientific development.
- Happiness as a fundamental human right; policy as a tool for achieving the people’s happiness.
Enlightenment thinkers believed governments must ensure natural rights: freedom, freedom of expression, and equality before the law. Scientific advancements included high-precision equipment (microscopes, scales, etc.) and discoveries in chemistry (hydrogen and oxygen). These advancements spread through academies, societies (where progress was discussed), and books. Diderot’s Encyclopédie collected and disseminated knowledge and new ideas.
Enlightened Absolutism
Inspired by Enlightenment philosophers, some European monarchs reformed their monarchies to foster progress and the happiness of their subjects. While maintaining absolute power, they used it to serve the people. Examples include Charles III of Spain and Catherine the Great of Russia.
Charles III, with ministers like Floridablanca and Aranda, encouraged industry and communication, reduced the Church’s influence, expelled the Jesuits, limited the Inquisition’s power, and implemented urban reforms in Madrid. Societies of Friends of the Country were established to study and promote the exploitation of natural resources.
Montesquieu
Montesquieu’s major work, The Spirit of the Laws, introduced the doctrine of the separation of powers to prevent absolutism:
- Legislature: Parliament
- Executive: King and ministers
- Judiciary: Independent judges
Rousseau
Rousseau’s Social Contract introduced the theory of popular sovereignty, where the true sovereign was the people, ruling under a covenant.
Voltaire
Voltaire used satire to expose societal problems and published pamphlets against religious intolerance, leading to his exile in England.
2) Phases of the French Revolution (1789)
The French Revolution began in two key locations: Versailles (seat of the court) and Paris. At Versailles, the bourgeoisie confronted the absolute monarchy; in Paris, the popular classes joined the movement.
Facing severe economic problems, Louis XVI convened the Estates-General (May 5, 1789). Representatives of the nobility, clergy, and the Third Estate (commoners) met. Instead of resolving the economic crisis, the Third Estate demanded a new political model. While the nobility and clergy advocated voting by estate, the Third Estate demanded voting by head.
Representatives of the Third Estate formed the National Constituent Assembly, forcing the nobility and the king to concede. In Paris, the people stormed the Bastille prison (July 14, 1789). The Assembly approved the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen on August 26 and adopted a constitution in 1789 that limited the king’s absolute powers.
The Revolution faced two main challenges:
- Opposition from royalist exiles and other European monarchs who tried to suppress the Revolution.
- Division among the revolutionaries themselves.
Two groups emerged in the Assembly: the Girondins (opposed to violence) and the Montagnards (Jacobins), who believed violence was necessary to achieve the people’s happiness. The Jacobins, led by Robespierre, ushered in the Reign of Terror.
A new Assembly (the Convention), controlled by the Montagnards, proclaimed the Republic and sentenced Louis XVI to death in 1793. Robespierre’s emergency measures led to the execution of thousands of citizens, primarily sans-culottes (craftsmen, etc.). The revolution primarily benefited the bourgeoisie, not the common people.
The Thermidorian Reaction (1794) marked the moderates’ revenge, dismantling Jacobin policies (including Robespierre’s death). Direct universal suffrage was abandoned, replaced by an electoral college system. A property-owning system was implemented, and the executive branch was reduced to five members (the Directory).
The Directory faced opposition from royalists and Jacobins, leading to another coup that established a three-member executive (Consulate), including Napoleon Bonaparte. Bonaparte soon became First Consul, accumulating executive and legislative powers. His military victories led to his ascension to Emperor after a plebiscite and a new constitution.
3) Causes and Characteristics of the First Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution resulted from four key factors:
Rapid Population Growth:
Decreased mortality due to medical advances, improved housing and food, and better hygiene led to rapid urban growth as industries attracted workers to cities.New Materials:
Growing populations stimulated the textile and steel industries, making cotton and iron essential commodities. Cotton replaced wool as a popular, cheaper, and machine-friendly fabric. Depletion of English forests led to iron becoming a primary raw material for machinery (agricultural and industrial instruments, ships, locomotives, railways, etc.).New Energy Sources:
Coal offered advantages over wood (abundance, superior heat). Steam power, used in machines, became another crucial energy source.Use of Machines at Work:
Inventions fueled industrialization. James Watt’s steam engine, using steam to power pistons and generate continuous motion, was pivotal. Mechanization began in the cotton industry and expanded to steel. In 1814, Stephenson’s steam locomotive ushered in the railway age.
The Industrial Revolution impacted all aspects of life and the economy:
Agriculture:
Modernization increased food production with less labor. New agricultural tools (complex plows, mowing machines) replaced animal traction.Revolution in Transportation:
- Railroads: Fueled steel industry growth. Essential for the U.S. to develop its vast territory.
- Steam Ships: Steam power replaced wind power, increasing speed for passenger and freight transport.
Changes in the Economy:
The industry demanded new work organization. Artisans were replaced by workers performing specialized tasks (Taylorism). Large investments were needed, leading to capitalist enterprises. Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations advocated economic freedom (economic liberalism). Increased investment led to capitalist enterprises and financial companies issuing shares. Banks, corporations, and stock markets became integral to the industrial economy.