The Enlightenment: Context, Philosophy, and Critical Thought
The Enlightenment: Context and Social Base
The Enlightenment, often referred to as ‘illustration’ in some contexts, represents a systematic treatment of ideas that are of significant interest. This period spans the entire eighteenth century, marked by two pivotal dates: the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the French Revolution of 1789. The enlightened new world vision transcended borders, spreading even to Germany, which was not easily enlightened at the time. Key figures like Rousseau, Kant, and Hume were instrumental. The optimism of this era extended from Russia to Spain.
The rising bourgeoisie, an economically upward class, sought political power, but their aspirations were often hampered by the persistence of feudal privileges.
Roots of the Enlightenment
The search for the roots of the Enlightenment reveals two primary influences:
- The ideal humanist philosophy of the Renaissance and its theories of society.
- Various rationalist and empiricist systems, exemplified by prominent figures of the era.
The cultural environment fostered a common requirement: human beings organizing themselves based on reality, without reference to external, unfounded entities. Enlightenment authors consistently pursued human liberation through reason. This is evident in Kant’s writings, which explore themes such as:
- The capacity of human intelligence.
- The rejection of external mentoring and self-imposed authorities.
- The critique of a lack of courage.
- The necessity of autonomous action.
Autonomous and sovereign reason was seen as the guiding light to perceive reality and organize collectively. The educational endeavors of the Enlightenment aimed to pave the way for progress.
Philosophy of the Enlightenment
The philosophy of this period permeated cultural spheres and society at large. It flourished in literary groups and private salons, where the burgeoning middle class engaged with philosophical ideas. In these informal settings, individuals could freely discuss ambiguous yet profound subjects, contrasting views with established doctrines. These discussions often found their way into written works, spreading ideas throughout society and influencing politics. Notably, women were often central figures in these intellectual gatherings.
The Enlightenment did not necessitate the development of new metaphysical, epistemological, logical, or theological systems. Instead, the form of treatment – the critical and rational approach – was paramount. British empiricism significantly influenced French rationalism, as empiricists rejected traditional metaphysics and rational ethics. The Enlightenment championed reason and rationalism, illuminating every subject of analysis. As Ernst Cassirer argued, the Enlightenment advocated for a philosophy of critical inquiry.
Enlightened Critical Thinking
The Enlightenment championed reason against previous forms of organizing the world and life itself. This critical stance manifested against several established positions:
- Against Theologizing Metaphysics: It challenged the centrality of God in explaining all phenomena.
- Against Theologico-Political Conceptions of Humanity: It opposed the idea that humans were created by God to guide their behavior based on natural needs, and that their social life was divinely ordained.
- Against Restrictive Science and Moral Force: It resisted any force that hindered the autonomy and natural development of human capabilities.
- Against Absolute Knowledge: It opposed the notion of absolute knowledge, embracing varying degrees of skepticism where truth was often considered less important than effectiveness.
This entire critical process culminated in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant.