The Enlightenment and the Social Contract
The Enlightenment
Enlightenment Man
Enlightenment man becomes not only the fundamental reality of the universe, but also fundamental to society, conceived as an aggregate of distinct individuals united by a contract. This forms the basis of new political theory.
Autonomy of Reason
Reason is sufficient in and of itself. It requires confidence and the decision to use it independently, with no limits other than those given by nature.
Criticality of Reason
Enlightened reason is self-critical. It challenges prejudices, traditions, superstition, idolatry, and any authority not recognized by reason itself.
Secular Character of Reason
The progress and liberation of mankind no longer depend on a providential God or redeemer, but on humanity’s own work and effort throughout history.
The Idea of Progress
The Enlightenment’s idea of progress is a belief that human living conditions will improve over time. Each generation is better than its predecessor and contributes to an even better life for future generations. It is believed that progress will continue indefinitely until widespread happiness is achieved.
The Social Contract
Thomas Hobbes
Hobbes’s vision is negative and pessimistic, stemming from his view of man’s instinctive nature (competition, distrust, and desire for glory). The state of nature is characterized by insecurity and violence, where natural law is inadequate to create order. Therefore, a social contract is necessary, giving rise to society and the state. Individuals surrender their power to the state, choosing a central authority that represents all wills. The sovereign is free from the contract and above it. Citizens are subjects in an absolute state.
John Locke
Locke believed man is social by nature. Human beings are free and equal in their natural state, but can violate each other’s rights. Natural law limits consciousness and behavior. Men have a natural right to private property, based on labor. Locke admits that “political society” is not natural, but useful for safeguarding natural rights. The origin of society lies in the agreement of all individuals. Through this agreement, individuals give up some freedom to enjoy it more safely, consenting to the will of the majority.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Rousseau envisioned primitive beings in a state of nature as free and equal, governed by feelings and in harmony with each other. Self-love and compassion motivated them. Man is good by nature. With the emergence of society, private property, and institutions, humans lost their natural goodness. Society corrupts men. The social contract aims to protect life and liberty. The legitimate government’s obligation is to follow the will of the majority, which tends towards the common good.
Adam Smith
In his 1759 work, Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith described the formation of moral judgments within a “natural order” of society, laying the groundwork for economic liberalism. He saw human behavior as driven by both reason and passion. Human nature, individualistic and rational, pushes towards both confrontation and the creation of institutions for the common good.
The Wealth of Nations
In The Wealth of Nations, Smith argued that production and exchange increase, raising the standard of living, if private entrepreneurs can act freely with minimal government intervention. He introduced the “invisible hand” principle: by seeking their own interests, individuals are led by an unseen force that achieves the best social outcome. The book also serves as a guide for economic policy, advocating for a free market model.
Economic Growth vs. Development
Economic growth is not the same as economic development. Development includes intangible aspects like freedom of thought, religion, intellect, culture, access to information, and public opinion. Growth refers to a nation’s economic progress, such as technological advancements that increase production. Development is a broader concept encompassing growth and factors like welfare.