The Enlightenment and the Revolution: A Clash of Ideals
The Old Regime
The French Revolution of 1789 targeted the institutions of the Old Regime, representing the traditions they sought to overthrow. This tradition encompassed various aspects: political (absolute monarchy), social (class society), economic (state-controlled economy), and intellectual (beliefs dominated by authority).
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment movement developed in 18th-century Europe, primarily in France. Its thinking was based on reason as the instrument for knowledge and a critical spirit that questioned established norms. The Enlightenment contributed in two ways: it opposed the Old Regime and presented a cultural revolution promoting economic progress and modernization in science and the arts.
Enlightened Despotism
While the Enlightenment attacked absolute monarchy, some monarchs adopted its cultural principles while rejecting its political thought. These enlightened despots continued their absolutist rule but showed interest in economic and cultural development, operating under the motto “all for the people, but without the people.”
Revolutionary Political Theories
The absolute monarchy’s claim to power was based on divine right. Liberal theories challenged this, asserting that sovereignty resided in the people and the king ruled by their delegation. Montesquieu advocated for the separation of powers (legislative, executive, and judicial), while Rousseau championed democratic ideas, emphasizing popular sovereignty (“the state is us”).
Criticism of the Estates System
18th-century Europe retained the medieval Estates system (nobility, clergy, and commoners). However, the bourgeoisie’s rising power contrasted with the increasingly discredited privileged classes. The commoners, burdened by the state, viewed the privileged as parasitic.
New Economic Theories
Mercantilism, advocating state intervention in the economy, was challenged by physiocracy (François Quesnay), which emphasized private land ownership for agricultural prosperity, and economic liberalism (Adam Smith), which advocated for free markets guided by supply and demand.
The Independence of the USA
The 1776 American Declaration of Independence, based on popular sovereignty and separation of powers, was a pivotal event.
Scientific Progress
Key scientific advancements included Lavoisier’s law of conservation of mass (chemistry), Newton’s work on universal gravitation (physics), Franklin’s experiments with electricity (physics), Linnaeus’s classification of plants and animals (biology), Jenner’s smallpox vaccine (medicine), and the discovery of Uranus (astronomy).
Neoclassicism
Rejecting the Baroque’s excesses, the Enlightenment embraced Neoclassicism, inspired by Greco-Roman antiquity. This academic and didactic style aimed to establish universal rules and transmit values.
Neoclassical Architecture
Characterized by simplified forms, large buildings, pediments, classical columns, and grand staircases.
The Plastic Arts
Painting conveyed new values: moral rectitude, greatness of spirit, and heroism.