The Enlightenment: A Deep Dive into 18th-Century Ideals and Key Figures

The Enlightenment

The Enlightenment was a significant cultural and political movement that emerged in 18th-century Europe. This period saw profound changes in ideas and institutions. Two core principles defined the Enlightenment: the use of reason as a tool to reshape reality and the belief in progress to enhance living conditions and increase human happiness.

New Ideological Approaches

The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was a historical period of the 18th century. It was part of a broader intellectual evolution that began in the 16th century with the Renaissance and continued through Baroque humanism and rationalism. The Enlightenment built upon Renaissance theories and the scientific method, emphasizing the importance of science. Enlightened despotism, the final stage of absolutism in the 18th century, attempted to integrate Enlightenment principles into governance.

Key Philosophers

Locke (1632-1704)

John Locke was deeply involved in the natural sciences and participated in the English revolutions. His political philosophy emphasized the pursuit of peace, harmony, and security as the foundation of human happiness. He proposed a separation of powers, distinguishing between the legislative and executive branches of government.

Montesquieu

Montesquieu’s most influential work is “The Spirit of the Laws.” He argued that a people’s laws and rights are connected to their geography. An admirer of the English constitution, he believed that a constitutional monarchy was the ideal form of government.

Rousseau (1712-1778)

Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s notable work, “The Social Contract,” posits that humans are inherently good and that society corrupts them by creating inequality. He opposed monarchy and advocated for a republic as the best form of government.

Enlightened Despotism in Europe

The predominant form of government in Europe during this era was monarchy, which transitioned to enlightened despotism by the mid-18th century. Notable examples include Prussia, Austria, Russia, France, and Great Britain.

Charles III of Spain

Following the War of Spanish Succession, the Bourbon dynasty was established, leading to a new state structure. Philip V, recognized as the rightful heir to the Spanish throne by the Peace of Utrecht, initiated state centralization through the Nueva Planta decrees. These decrees abolished the charters of all territories except Navarre and the Basque Country, establishing the courts of Castile’s supremacy throughout the kingdom. Before his reign in Spain, Charles III was the King of Naples, which provided him with substantial governing experience.

Charles IV’s Reign (1788-1808)

The reign of Charles IV marked a period of decline, with the king becoming a largely private figure alongside Godoy, despite the reformist efforts of Jovellanos.

Goya: A Bridge Between Centuries

Francisco Goya was an artist who spanned two centuries, embodying both Roman Neoclassicism and laying the groundwork for modern art movements such as Impressionism, Expressionism, Realism, and Surrealism. His work can be divided into two distinct periods:

First Period: Under Charles III and Charles IV

Goya’s early work featured vibrant depictions of everyday life, holidays, and the people of Madrid. His use of brilliant colors and masterful lighting effects, influenced by Velázquez, is evident in his tapestry cartoons. He also painted religious subjects, such as the frescoes in San Francisco el Grande. After joining the Academy, he created an impressive Christ, clearly influenced by Velázquez, and became a court painter and portraitist.

Second Period: From the Early 19th Century Until His Death

A series of personal tragedies, including deafness, family troubles, and the wars in Spain, profoundly impacted Goya’s later work. This period is characterized by paintings like “The Second of May” and “The Executions of the Third of May,” as well as his stark and haunting prints depicting the horrors of war. His reformist spirit is evident in his “Black Paintings,” created in his home known as “La Quinta del Sordo.” These works reflect a world of witches, nightmares, and hallucinations, rendered in monochrome tones with a loose, expressionistic brushwork.

Key Concepts

  • Enlightenment: The culmination of the process begun in the Renaissance, based on rationalism, the scientific method, and the belief in the power of science and human action.
  • Jurisdiction: Specific laws granted by kings to a particular territory during the Reconquista era.
  • Sovereignty: The principle that power resides in the people.
  • Guild: A specialized job or trade.