The End of Spain’s Colonial Empire: Cuba, Philippines, and 1898
The Spanish Empire’s Colonial Liquidation: Cuba, Philippines, and 1898
In the late nineteenth century, the regime established by Cánovas del Castillo was severely impacted by a crisis stemming from colonial wars and the loss of Spain’s last overseas imperial remnants. Spain’s participation in international politics was curtailed, as it joined the ranks of the weaker, or “moribund,” nations, contrasting with the strong, or “vital,” powers.
Background to the Cuban Question
The Restoration regime faced significant challenges due to the so-called Cuban Question, which encompassed the following issues:
- Outbreaks of unrest caused by the Cuban independence movement occurred occasionally, including the “Little War” of 1879 and insurrections in 1883 and 1885. These conflicts and the subsequent repression, coupled with the Long War (1868-1878), fueled popular nationalism in Cuba, drawing support from both enslaved people and native Cubans.
- Spanish bureaucrats, businessmen, and sugar planters residing on the island refused to admit any form of autonomy. On the Iberian Peninsula, significant economic interests were tied to Cuba, as trade with the island, a market monopoly, provided Spain with a positive balance. The abolition of slavery on the island was delayed, and the project to grant it autonomy was never fully implemented. An attempt was made to integrate Cuba as a Spanish province by dispatching 700,000 migrants, primarily from Galicia (1868-1894).
- Cuba derived much of its revenue from the United States, which imported over 98% of its sugar and tobacco production. Diplomatic pressure from the U.S. on the island increased. In 1892, the United States imposed a favorable tariff for its products and financed the independence movement with the intention of intervening or claiming the island should conflict arise between Cuba and the metropolis.
The War in Cuba and Conflict with the United States
The Peace of Zanjón (1878) ended the “Long War” but only postponed the underlying issues. The war erupted again in February 1895, during carnival celebrations, with the “Grito de Baire”—the name given to the uprising that took place in the eastern part of the island. This rebellion garnered broad popular support and was driven by the independence aspirations of the black and mulatto population. Subsequently, the Montecristi Manifesto (Dominican Republic) was proclaimed, written by José Martí and Máximo Gómez, who were the civilian and military leaders, respectively, of the Cuban Revolutionary Party, formed in New York. Martí died shortly after the war began.
He was succeeded in command by Máximo Gómez and Antonio Maceo.
The Spanish response, directed by military leaders Arsenio Martínez Campos and Valeriano Weyler, attempted to combat the insurgency (using guerrilla tactics) with a large military contingent. However, the insurgents enjoyed popular support and were better adapted to the local terrain. Furthermore, the climate had devastating effects on the Spanish soldiers.
Public Opinion and War Support
Spanish public opinion was initially in favor of the war, with the exception of Federalists, Socialists, Anarchists, and some intellectuals and politicians such as Miguel de Unamuno and Sabino Arana. Gradually, however, popular support declined as the costs of the conflict increased. Those who could afford it were able to purchase exemption from military service. Consequently, only youth from economically disadvantaged popular classes were sent to Cuba, as the war was largely financed through monetary means rather than broad conscription.