The Early Modern Age: Economic, Social, Cultural, and Political Transformations
The Early Modern Age: 1453–1789
Economic Transformations
- Increased agricultural production: tree-field system
- Expansion of craftsmanship: products made in workshops, controlled by guilds
- Intensified commercial activity: surplus production sold in city markets; merchants traveled in search of new markets, establishing trade routes
- Development of mercantile capitalism: capital (money, raw materials, tools, workshops) owned by private individuals, primarily members of the bourgeoisie; economic growth led to the development of banking
- Providing loans: merchants needed money to start new commercial activities; bankers lent money in exchange for repayment of the same amount plus interest; Fugger family in Germany, Medici in Florence were among the most important banking families
- Creating new forms of payment: the bill of exchange was created, guaranteeing that bankers would pay a merchant or authorized person a quantity of money on a specified date and place; traveling with cash was unsafe
Social Changes
As the rural society that developed in the Middle Ages declined, an urban society emerged, becoming one of the defining characteristics of the Early Modern Age.
Society continued to be divided into different estates:
- Privileged estates: nobility and clergy; a minority, but owned most of the land; only ones with access to high political positions; numerous privileges, including not paying taxes
- Unprivileged estates: third estate, the majority of the population
- Peasants: largest group; serfs of feudal lords or nobles; had to pay rent or a part of their harvest
- Bourgeoisie: city inhabitants, not ruled by feudal lords; increased in number, wealth, and political influence
- Upper bourgeoisie: bankers and officials
- Petite bourgeoisie: small merchants, less important officials, artisans, servants, and laborers
The Modern State
Monarchs had more resources, becoming more powerful and able to reform existing laws and create new ones:
- Formed powerful armies of mercenaries to subdue nobles who confronted them; prohibited nobles from having their own armies
- Bureaucracy: officials directly under their control supervised the kingdom’s affairs, allowing monarchs to maintain effective control of their possessions
- Centralized power
Cultural Changes
At the beginning of the Early Modern Age, there were significant developments in thinking and science. Ideas spread rapidly due to the invention of the printing press:
- Inspiration in classical culture: ancient Greece and Rome were studied and imitated
- Anthropocentrism: human beings at the center of the world, instead of God
- Growing interest in science: observation of reality, experimentation, and reasoning to explain things
Religious humanism: Erasmus of Rotterdam joined classical antiquity and Christian religion
Scientific humanism: Nicolaus Copernicus formulated the heliocentric theory: sun as the center of the universe
Movable type press: invented by Gutenberg; books became cheaper, revolutionizing education
Academies: where humanists met and shared ideas
Consequences of the Expeditions
Economic Consequences
- New Atlantic trade routes stabilized, reducing the importance of the Mediterranean; port cities along the Atlantic coast grew
- Large quantities of precious metals arrived in Europe from the Americas, used to make coins, increasing the amount of money in circulation; foundations of the new economic system that developed in the 16th and 17th centuries: mercantile capitalism
- Brought a large quantity of exotic products to Europe
Political Consequences
- European culture spread around the world
- Discoveries of unknown lands influenced the development of geography
- Technology developed, especially in navigation
The Age of Discoveries
Portulans charts, astrolabe, quadrant, caravel, compass: navigational tools used by explorers
Who Was Christopher Columbus?
An Italian explorer, navigator, and colonizer born in the Republic of Genoa; under the auspices of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, he completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean. During his first voyage, Columbus was at sea for more than two months before finally landing in America.
Where Did He Think He Was?
He thought he was in Cipang (Japan).
What Was Their Purpose?
To explore and establish Castilian dominion of these territories.
What Is the Origin of the Name”Americ”?
An Italian sailor, Amerigo Vespucci, realized that these lands belonged to a new continent.
Capitulaciones of Santa Fe
An agreement between King Ferdinand II of Aragon, Queen Isabel I of Castile, and Christopher Columbus, granting him the titles of Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Viceroy, Governor-General, and a tenth part of any riches obtained from his intended voyage.
Treaty of Tordesillas
An agreement between Spain and Portugal aimed at settling conflicts over lands discovered or explored by Christopher Columbus and other late 15th-century voyagers. Spain and Portugal divided the New World by drawing a line in the Atlantic Ocean.