The Dynamics of Language Change: English Evolution & Linguistic Factors

Posted on Sep 8, 2025 in English Studies. Language, Literature, and Culture

Understanding Language Change: Core Concepts

Historical linguistics studies how languages evolve. Two main approaches are:

• Diachronic: Studies changes in language over time.
• Synchronic: Studies the linguistic elements and usage of a language at a specific point in time.

Several elements can change in a language, and can even disappear, such as pronunciation, meaning, vocabulary, and structure. Languages change naturally, though they are modified by various external factors, which are often interconnected. These include migration, language contact, age gaps, social class, gender, technological advances, fashion, and imagination. Sometimes changes are caused by a specific factor, but normally, they occur due to a combination of several. The economy of language is the most important internal factor that causes language change. It refers to the inherent principle of language, seeking convenience and minimal effort at the phonetic, lexical, morphological, and syntactic levels.

Key Terminology

• Linguistic prestige: Emotional prestige often occurs unconsciously; you accommodate your language to demonstrate affection (e.g., imitating an accent).
• Accommodation: The way in which you modify or adapt your way of speaking, both consciously or unconsciously. We accommodate our language to achieve various desires.

Historical Linguistics: Purpose and Scope

Historical linguistics studies the change of a language. This study is crucial for understanding languages and their acquisition (mechanisms and functions), to promote interdisciplinary approaches, and to maintain, conserve, and reconstruct languages. It also helps eradicate prejudices and promote tolerance, as languages are inherently interconnected.

Historical Linguistics is not concerned with the history of linguistics, nor with the origin of human language (though it is relevant to it), nor about stopping language change. Languages naturally change with the evolution of humankind; but, the primary external reason for languages to change is geography, though other factors are important too, such as identity, society, culture, and interaction.

Example: American vs. British English

They use different vocabulary due to various reasons:

• Culture: Borrowing words from other countries, or simplifying them to coexist with other people.
• Identity: Americans wanted independence from Britain, and so they shifted their language grammatically and revised their dictionary (e.g., Merriam-Webster vs. Cambridge).
• Interaction: Some American words like *raccoon* come from misunderstandings or communication problems, since different cultures were coexisting.

So, Historical Linguistics is a discipline that deals with language change, how and why it changes over time. This discipline is also called diachronic linguistics (from Greek *dia-* ‘through’; *chronos* ‘time’), contrasted with synchronic linguistics.

Key Areas of Study

It involves different areas:

• Descriptive linguistics: Includes etymology (*the historical study of individual words*) and phonetics (*changes in sounds and pronunciation*).
• Psycholinguistics: How our brain processes language.
• Sociolinguistics: Linguistic marketplace (*a concept referring to linguistic choices determined by social positions; it highlights how men and women may act differently, and how young adults adjust accent and dialect when taking occupations requiring specific speech skills*).

Evolution of Historical Linguistics Study

The ways of studying Historical Linguistics have also changed, following these trends and theories:

1. Early Periods: Religious Approach: As monasteries were cultural centers; language was studied as a part of philosophy and rhetoric.
2. 14th Century: University Influence: First universities were created; the first three liberal arts (the trivium) dealt with language (grammar, rhetoric, and logic).
3. 18th-19th Centuries: Descriptive Work: Classification and history of languages were studied by the German School (which identified Proto-Indo-European).
4. 19th Century: Deep Language Study: Developed its methodology and theory, and established genealogical relationships.
5. 20th Century: Neogrammarians and Curriculum: From the end of the 19th century until the 1970s, studying Historical English Linguistics (reading and translating Old English and Middle English texts) was compulsory in the curriculum of European universities (e.g., UCM curricula in the 1980s).
6. 1970s Onwards: Decline and Reassessment: Historical Linguistics has been gradually abandoned due to political, economic, and ideological reasons; excessive workload (the main aim to be able to read Old and Middle English texts, a work which required more than a year).

Key Takeaways from Worksheet 1 & Reading Summary 1

1. Some advantages of studying a language’s history are to learn about the culture of the speakers and the connections between countries with different languages and cultures (which cause language change).
2. Some irregularities in English include plurals (normally we add an *-s*, but words like *children* and *women* exist), verbs (past tenses form by adding an *-ed*, but we have *became* and *thought*), and the relation between the spelling and pronunciation of certain words (*hiccough* /hɪkʌp/).

Historical Context: Early English Development (Video 1 Summary)

Around 400 CE, Celts were ruled by Romans in Britain. These Romans protected Celts from the Saxons, but had to withdraw after the fall of the Roman Empire. Anglo-Saxons invaded Britain, formed kingdoms, and established Old English (a Germanic language). Around 700, there was a Viking Invasion, dividing the islands between those who spoke English (Saxons) and Old Norse (Danes). By 1066, French Vikings, the Normans, invaded the isle, adding Latin (through religion) and French to the linguistic mix. During the Norman rule, French was used by the aristocracy, and Old English by the peasantry. This connotation is still persistent in Modern English vocabulary, since words like *cordial* (derived from French, more formal) versus Old English terms that might feel more vulgar. Language has evolved through generations; by tracing changes, we can uncover older versions. As seen in previous discussions, Old English itself was a mix of different languages. Comparative linguistics helps us understand unwritten language history by comparing its descendants, as changes often show consistency. A diachronic approach considers the development and evolution of language history. A synchronic approach, without taking history into account, aims at describing rules at a specific point in time, even if they may have been at an earlier stage; it’s an idealization as language is complex, dynamic, and ever-changing. Variation relates to the manner in which elements vary, leading to the employment of one form instead of another over time. It takes contextual information regarding the speaker’s preference into account.

Attitudes Towards Language Evolution

As we know, languages change constantly; this change primarily occurs due to human evolution. Language is often influenced by those in power, who may impose their way of speaking on others. There are several conservative attitudes towards language; people who partake in them believe languages should be kept *pure* to their original version. Examples of factors influencing these attitudes include:

• Generation gaps: Older people often use language differently.
• Education: Those who are especially well-educated may take a particular interest in language preservation.
• Beliefs: Some are inclined to view any changes from what they grew up with as instances of decay.

Prescriptivism

This type of attitude is known as prescriptivism. Prescriptivism focuses on creating rules that make necessary restrictions, aiming to order language and decide how it *should* be used, distinguishing between correct and incorrect usage. These rules are often prescribed by authorities, dictionaries, and cultural conventions. Note that convention in society is crucial to maintain communication. At the same time, it was impulsed by an ideology of nationalism, as there was a need to protect and conserve language. As seen in Von Humboldt’s quote: ‘Nothing is so important for a nation’s culture as its language.’

Descriptivism

Descriptivism, on the other hand, believes change is unstoppable. Different contexts are observed in detail and described without prejudice or snobbery. Much work labeled within linguistics comprises two activities: collection of primary data (large corpus sources) and analysis of data. From a descriptivist perspective, there are no ‘wrong’ forms; all forms help shape and reflect human communication. Humans are constantly changing, and language reflects this. Puristic beliefs, as in the case of English, aimed to conserve and keep it closer to its original form. This was highlighted during the 18th century due to the rise of nationalism. Admiration for Latin, seen as the ‘purest form,’ also influenced ‘Englishness,’ leading to written language becoming more important. The idea that ‘a constant stays still, a roll does continuous process development’ implies that language gradually transforms through centuries. Various ways of observing said change include: slow decay, languages evolving to an efficient state, economy, or remaining similar. It simply states that succeeding generations were each dominated by certain laws and alterations based on social class and prejudice. The 18th-century movement was an attempt to preserve an unchanged idea of absolute standard correctness, which was maintained. This movement was illogical; it didn’t favor even arbitrary personal preferences. Sometimes, Lowth’s example only favored those socially prestigious. It originated from a natural nostalgic tendency, intensified by social pressures. The basis for defining what was conservative was the application of Johnson’s Dictionary. It took into account powerful snobbery, adhered to by acquired lower classes, and admiration for Latin. This legacy from the Middle Ages caused three effects on attitudes towards languages: emphasis on replicating, a search to fix, and a belief in a superior spoken one, viewed as having ‘slipped’ by losing endings (languages with a full set of nouns and verbs were seen as ideal).

Linguistic Prescriptivism: A practice that uses specific items laid down by explicit, externally imposed rules. Users may establish or teach what a sector perceives as proper, advising effective and stylistically apt usage.

Descriptivism: A non-judgmental approach, looking at how descriptivists place importance on language *actually being used* rather than trying to identify a ‘correct’ way. It flourished intact from influences to develop.

Mechanisms and Causes of Language Change

As we have mentioned, language represents the way in which we see the world. But, humans are constantly changing, which means that language is changing continuously too. Though, changes don’t just appear spontaneously (a radical one could interfere in communication), they are influenced by several factors that have been mentioned in prior units. For a change to be fully accepted, prestige and cultural convention must occur previously. Changes in semantics (words) are the most obvious ones, and don’t have much impact on the general structure of language since they are easier to accommodate; next to phonetics, which are also very noticeable and easy to occur, since the interaction of different components from various languages could cause a phonetic change. But, grammar changes don’t occur easily, and take longer to happen because grammar is the *skeleton* of a language. Though as these change the structure, they normally last longer than the previous changes mentioned. This explains why we can understand the structure of older versions of the same language.

How Does Language Change Spread?

Well, the process is like that of leaves falling off a tree. A few are blown off in August, but the vast majority whirl down in September, while a few stubborn remnants cling till November. But the image of leaves falling off trees may oversimplify the situation: it implies (Aitchison, 1996). Basically, language change is gradual, but it doesn’t always happen in a clear, step-by-step way like leaves falling from a tree. Instead, it’s more complex and can happen in unexpected ways.

Why Do Languages Change?

Then again, there are several different causative factors at work, not only in languages as a whole, but also in any one change. Summarizing, there is no single individual factor; languages change because of a combination of internal and external factors.

External (Sociolinguistic) Factors

• Prestige: The positive value judgment or high status accorded certain languages, certain varieties, and certain variables favored over other less prestigious languages, varieties, or variables. People tend to speak like those whom they admire. This phenomenon can take place consciously or unconsciously; and can be either overt or covert.

Overt prestige: The positive or high value given to variables, varieties, and languages typically widely recognized as prestigious among speakers of a language. Covert prestige: Evaluation given to non-standard, low-status forms of speech. Depending on the place we are in, there might exist distinguishing grammatical usages, lexical items, as well as pronunciation. The most famous variation is intra-continental (different distinct countries, e.g., *carro* vs. *coche*), also due to dialects.

Language Contact

Can diffuse through language contact in the following ways:

• Borrowing: Occurs in minimal, limited situations where a few speakers (L2) adopt terms, idioms, etc., from L1.
• Substratum Interference: Mainly in bilingual communities, L1 influences the phonology and grammar of L2, which then adapts it. For example, the English word *its* and its pronunciation in Spanish.
• Phonological Changes: Over long periods, those who coexist may notice the introduction of new phonemes (e.g., French initial position words). Profound traits survive, like English spoken in India. Basically, L1 moves to L2.

Syntactic Changes

Three main types of changes:

• Alternative construction using syntax (e.g., Spanish: *estaban peleando y entonces la policía llegó*).
• Borrowing function (taking prefixes, suffixes).
• Creation of lexico-syntactic calques (translating word-for-word, e.g., *Do you car bought?* for *¿Te gusta el coche que compraste?*).

Internal (Psycholinguistic) Factors

Occur because of the economy of language; speakers try to make it shorter and easier, minimizing articulation effort. Sometimes, however, the system becomes more complex (e.g., more vowels but fewer distinct sounds).

• Generalization: Applying a general rule to a situation perceived as similar to something seen before. E.g., *dog* > *dogs*, then *ox* > *oxes* (incorrect!).
• Hypercorrection: Applies a previous correction on a similar situation, but turns out to be wrong. E.g., if we correct ‘*you and me* + V’ to ‘*you and I* + V’, then incorrectly apply it to ‘*for you and me*’ becoming ‘*for you and I*’ (the first version is correct).

Mainly external changes occur either because of fashion trends, random fluctuation (by accident or for no clear reason), or foreign bodies. There are different types of relations between foreign bodies:

• Substratum: Linguistic structures transferred from the earlier language to the one that arrived later in the same territory.
• Superstratum: Language of an invading people that is imposed on an indigenous population and contributes features to the indigenous people’s language.
• Adstratum: A language that influences a neighboring language or languages that have relatively equal prestige.

Key Insights from Worksheet 3 & Reading Summary

1. Change in the use of a language within the same community. No change is irrelevant; even small changes should be taken into account. Language variation can be observed in how different social groups use distinct linguistic forms, as demonstrated by the contrast between standard and non-standard language usage. A clear example is seen in Reading, where variation exists between forms like ‘I knows’ and ‘I know’. This variation is crucial for language change because it often represents the persistence of older forms alongside newer ones. For instance, the ‘-s’ endings used by Reading boys are likely remnants of historical southwestern English dialects rather than innovations. The ‘frayed edges’ metaphor relates to how these variations exist at the boundaries between standard and non-standard usage, often divided along social lines – as seen in how males tend to prefer non-standard forms with *covert prestige* while females favor standard forms with *overt prestige*.

2. Aitchison’s ‘Stars vs. Sponge-Cakes’ Metaphor

   Aitchison uses the stars vs. sponge-cakes metaphor to challenge the simplistic view of society as neat layers of social classes. Instead of being arranged in clear-cut layers like a sponge cake, humans organize themselves into loose-knit clusters like stars, forming complex social networks. These networks vary in density – some are close-knit where people live, work, and socialize together, while others are loose-knit with occasional interactions like neighbors or colleagues. As we move geographically and through social contexts, while mixing them up, humans accommodate language in different ways (we use language differently in various places and contexts). We do not use language in an isolated way, but we take into account our environment.

3. Labov’s Study on R-Pronunciation in NYC

   Labov studied *r*-pronunciation variation across three New York department stores: Saks (high-end), Macy’s (middle), and Klein’s (lower-end). He asked sales assistants questions about ‘fourth floor,’ noting their casual and emphatic pronunciations. The study revealed higher *r*-usage in Saks than Macy’s and Klein’s, correlating with social status. His findings proved ongoing language change through several observations: Higher *r*-usage in careful speech versus casual speech indicated conscious change. A follow-up study 20 years later showed increased overall *r*-usage, confirming the change’s progression. The change started around WWII, marking a shift from *r*-less pronunciation common in the early 1900s. The lower middle class showed *hypercorrection* in formal speech, suggesting active linguistic insecurity and change.

4. Social vs. Linguistic Prestige: Social prestige (social division) has more impact on the diffusion of language than linguistic prestige (emotional accommodation to a language). This is because social accommodation occurs within a group or any type of social interaction, for instance, in a job interview.

5. The Norwich Case Study

   When a non-standard linguistic feature suddenly emerges into consciousness, it typically creates a conflict between social forces supporting the non-standard feature and those promoting the accepted norm. The Norwich case study illustrates this perfectly. In Norwich, the alternation between standard ‘*-ing*’ and local ‘*-in’* (as in *walking/walkin’*) created a social tug-of-war. Trudgill found that men and women pulled in opposite directions – women favored the standard pronunciation due to status consciousness, while men preferred the non-standard form for its ‘rougher’ associations. Women thought they used the standard form more than they actually did, while men believed they used the non-standard form more frequently than reality. This demonstrates how conscious awareness of linguistic features can create a period of apparent stability while opposing social forces compete. Language changes typically originate from existing elements rather than appearing suddenly, with people adopting and exaggerating features already present in the language. Social factors play a crucial role in language change: People tend to conform to speech patterns of those around them. Changes often spread through social networks and workplace interactions. Class distinctions influence language adoption, with upper-middle-class speakers typically using more prestigious forms. Geographical diffusion of language changes is complex, reflecting various demographic processes and social motivations. Changes often occur unconsciously, with speakers unaware of ongoing modifications in their speech patterns.

Key Terminology

• Language variation: The differences in language use among speakers within a speech community. These variations can be influenced by factors such as region, social class, age, gender, and context.
• Language change: The process by which languages evolve over time, driven by both internal mechanisms (like simplification of complex forms) and external factors (like social or cultural influences).
• Dialects: Any regional or social variety of a single language that is mutually intelligible with other dialects of the same language and that differs in some definable features from other varieties of that language. Geographic dialects depend on the region, while social dialects depend on the relationships between social class and language patterns. For instance, you can have a Sevillian accent (geographic) or a Sevillian *señorito* whose content in language and ways of using grammar are different (social).

Semantic Change: Meaning Evolution

Semantic change refers to the change or variation in the meaning of words. Many switches can occur in words; they may lose their full meaning in order to get a new one, or they may even disappear. These changes might take place because of extra-linguistic or linguistic factors:

• Extra-linguistic factors: Factors outside linguistics related to changes in the speech community’s life, economic and social structures (e.g., industrialization introduced words like *factory*), culture, knowledge, and technology (e.g., the internet brought new words). Ideas, specific concepts, ways of life, and discoveries can introduce new terms.
• Linguistic factors: Changes within the language itself that refer to its natural evolution and modification over time, affecting its structure, vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, and usage. We have several linguistic causes:
  • Ellipses: A change of meaning when the meaning of a word combination is given to only one word of said combination.
  • Discrimination of synonyms: Conflict of synonyms when a perfect synonym of a native word is borrowed from another language.

As we know, semantic change occurs when the meaning of a word changes over time. For this to happen, there has to be some kind of association or connection between the old meaning and the new one (for instance, the word *mouse* refers to an animal and a computer device, which are similar in form). Sometimes semantic change mainly comes from linguistic contact where different languages interact or borrow from each other. This can arise in two ways:

1. Between words: One disappears because of a situation of prestige or power. When a word from a less dominant language enters the language spoken by a more dominant, prestigious group, it can influence the other. Imagine a Spanish-speaking community interacts with an English-speaking one. If English is seen as important for school or work, Spanish speakers might start saying *car* instead of *coche* to fit in. Over time, some people might stop using *coche* entirely in certain situations. Words modify in order to be kept, avoid disappearing, adapt their meanings, or merge into the language.
2. On the other hand, in areas where both languages mix (e.g., Spanglish), both words might be used but in slightly different ways. For example, they might say *mesa* when talking about a traditional family dinner table and *desk* for something more modern. The two words survive, but their meanings or uses adjust to fit the context.

The previously mentioned association can also occur in main ways:

• Similarity of metaphor: Appearance of a new meaning as a result of associating objects or qualities due to resemblance, either in shape (e.g., pyramid schemes), position (e.g., mountain *page*), function, behavior, or color (e.g., *hazel*).
• Contiguity (Metonymy): Referents, one of which makes part of the other or is closely connected with it. There are various types:
  • Material: The material an object is made of may become its actual name (e.g., *mink* coat).
  • Place: Name of a place for people placed there (e.g., *Hollywood* for film makers).
  • Instruments: Names of instruments for musicians united in an orchestra (e.g., *violins*).
  • People: Some person becomes a common noun (e.g., *sandwich* comes from Lord Sandwich).
  • Inventors: Inventors very often give terms to their inventions (e.g., *watt*, *grimm*).
  • Geography: Geographical names can be used for things produced there (e.g., *porcelain*).
  • Objects: Content for the container (e.g., *kettle* boiling, *water* inside).
  • Painters: Painters refer to their masterpieces; writers to a painting by him.

Taking a look at the results of semantic change, we notice that it affects the range of meaning. This means changes in all communicative components: context, need, language, speaker, hearer, interpretation.

Denotational Semantic Change Processes

Now, denotational semantic change can follow several processes:

• Narrowing/Restriction: The type of referents denoted in the world becomes generalized or specialized. E.g., *hound* (any dog) to *hound* (a dog used for chasing).
• Widening/Application: A word applies to a wider variety of referents. E.g., *trunk* (stem of a tree) to *trunk* (body, anything).
• Specialization: Vocabulary with wide usage becomes technical jargon. E.g., *glide* (move gently) to *glide* (fly with no engine).
• Generalization: Extended usage passes from specialized vocabulary into general use. Jargon becomes widely used. E.g., *salary* (given to soldiers) to *salary* (given to clerks).
• Pejorative: A word acquires a derogatory emotive charge. E.g., *boor* (peasant) to *boor* (clumsy, ill-bred fellow).
• Amelioration: Improvement in the connotational component. E.g., *minister* (servant) to *minister* (civil servant of higher rank).

Figures of Speech

There are also figures of speech that feel familiar, like:

• Hyperbole: An exaggerated statement that should not be understood literally; it expresses an emotional attitude about what is being spoken about. E.g., ‘You’ll be the death of me!’
• Irony: Expression of the opposite sense, usually done for the purpose of ridicule. E.g., ‘How nice of you!’ (when they did poorly).
• Euphemism: Referring to something unpleasant using milder phrases. Formerly inoffensive words receive a disagreeable connotation. E.g., ‘pass away’ for ‘die’.
• Taboo: A prohibited case to pronounce, replaced by another word-combination (e.g., bodily excretions).
• Litotes: Expressing the affirmative by negating its contrary. E.g., ‘not bad’ (good), ‘no small’ (great).

Lexical Evolution

Modification within the lexicon over time. It focuses on the addition, removal, or alteration of words. Ways new words are introduced:

• Creation: Entirely new words. Many added to the ever-growing lexicon of English are just created from scratch and have little etymological pedigree.
• Borrowing: Loanwords adopted from native or different sources (classical ones, invasions, colonizations).
• Affixation: Adding prefixes and affixes. Few rules: Anglo-Saxon attached to Latin/Greek roots, or vice versa. Suffixes remain the simplest, perhaps commonest, method of creation.
• Clipping/Truncation: Shortening longer words, though difficult since they can come back shorter. E.g., *God be with you* -> *goodbye*. Acronyms are an example of this technique (e.g., *LASER* from Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation).
• Fusing/Compounding: Formation of words from already existing ones.
• Errors/Etymology: A phrase changes over time, resulting in the replacement of an unfamiliar form with a familiar one. Caused by misreading, typographical errors, or misinterpretations (e.g., *pentice*).
• Imitation of Sounds: Words formed by deliberate sounds to describe something (onomatopoeia).
• Transfer of Proper Nouns: A surprising number of proper nouns have been transferred to places and things, then known as eponyms (e.g., *Rudolf Diesel*).
• Back-formation: Creating a new word by removing a supposed, incorrectly identified affix.

Reading Summary: The metaphor ‘just like a seed is likely to enter the ground where soil soft such as crack between paving stones so sound change creep into language at vulnerable point’ effectively illustrates how linguistic changes typically begin at exposed points in language. Just as seeds find their way through the path of least resistance, changes tend to start where language is most susceptible to modification. This vulnerability can manifest in different ways; for instance, frequently used words or resulting combinations are easier to pronounce. The metaphor also captures the gradual nature of change: slowly, and then spreading by lexical diffusion. Like a growing plant, these changes don’t occur suddenly but rather follow a characteristic slow-quick-quick-slow pattern, similar to an S-curve. The Neogrammarians’ belief in simultaneous change has been disproven by direct observation of progress. A clear example comes from New York speakers who show variation in *r*-pronunciation even within the same sentence; one speaker forms the word on some days pronouncing it, while omitting it on another reading. Changes follow an S-curve, starting with few, accelerating rapidly, before slowing again. This is evident in English stress-patterns: some have shifted, while others remain unchanged. Change progresses by diffusion rather than affecting all simultaneously, as claimed. It can be compared to a snowball that starts small, gradually gains momentum, and grows larger. Rolling downhill, changes accelerate as they reach a critical mass in a relatively short time span. Eventually, the process slows down again, leaving some resistant cases. An ongoing shift in two-syllable nouns started, grew to affect around 80%, and reached 90%; however, approximately 10% still resist, currently wavering between old forms. Key factors driving change are: frequency of usage (often leading to change, though high-frequency irregular verbs sometimes show greater susceptibility), and cultural importance (fundamental cultural terms may change first, as seen in Dravidian languages). Semantic change involves existing meanings evolving over time. It highlights that the process is driven by social and contextual factors. Semantic change allows words to acquire or lose meanings and nuance, reflecting how vocabulary evolves through creation, borrowing, and the obsolescence of older usage. It reflects a dynamic system that adapts to technological and societal developments. Individual phonemes are pronounced, combined, and distributed. Shifts in structure, form, and order of grammatical relationships take place. Features occur as a result of contact, trade, colonization, and interaction between language-speaking communities. Borrowed elements are adapted to fit the phonological and morphological rules of the recipient language.

Phonological Change: Sound System Shifts

As we mentioned in prior units, one of the most notable and easiest changes in language is the phonetic one, which refers to a shift in sound system. These changes affect individual phonemes, and the way in which they are pronounced, combined, and distributed. As with other aspects of language, pronunciation changes over time. Such change is largely responsible for the existence of different *accents*—that is, different ways of pronouncing a language. According to the Regularity Hypothesis (RH), sound change is regular because we all have the same muscles to produce sound and simplify sounds. We simplify the words we use or their sounds to make them easier to pronounce (which explains why the most common change is the variation of ending phonemes).

Mechanisms of Phonological Change

Phonological change can occur in different ways:

• Assimilation: Change by which one sound becomes more like another adjacent sound. It affects consonants, and can occur in several ways:
  • Palatalization: A sound moves closer to a palatal sound (near the roof of the mouth).
  • Affrication: A stop or fricative becomes an affricate (a stop-fricative combination).
  • Nasalization: A vowel becomes nasalized as air flows through the nose.
  • Umlaut: A vowel changes to become more like another vowel in the word.
• Dissimilation: When two similar sounds become less alike.
• Haplology: A repeated sequence of sounds is simplified.
• Weakening and Deletion: Sounds become softer or are deleted, becoming less distinct.
• Syncope: A sound is dropped from the middle of a word (e.g., *family* -> *fam’ly*).
• Apocope: A sound is dropped from the end of a word (e.g., Old English name to modern name).
• Metathesis: Speech sounds swap places (e.g., *brid* -> *bird*).
• Epenthesis: A new sound is added.
• Sonorization/Voicing: A voiceless sound becomes voiced (e.g., Latin *lupus* -> Spanish *lobo*).
• Rhotacism: A sound changes to an *r*-like sound (e.g., Latin *flos* -> *floris*).

Morpho-Syntactic Change

Corresponds to alterations in a language’s morphology (word formation) and syntax (phrase and sentence creation).

• Morphology: Refers to how words are built in a language. It looks into the smallest parts of language (morphemes) and how they connect to form whole words, which are stored in the lexicon. Morphological changes may arise by reinterpretation or reanalysis of syntactic structures and morphological patterns. The structure and way sentences are formed can change over time, for instance, through the movement of morpheme boundaries (e.g., *a napron* which became *an apron*). Languages start making new ways by adding different suffixes.

Analogy

Creation of forms based on patterns we already know. There are two types:

• Proportional analogy: E.g., *teach* : *taught* :: *catch* : *caught*.
• Analogical leveling: One pattern becomes more common than others, simplifying plurals.

• Syntax: The part of grammar that deals with how words are arranged in sentences. It governs rules of sentence structure.

Mechanisms of Syntactic Change

Then again, certain mechanisms change:

• Reanalysis: A linguistic element takes a new analysis from what it had before, or is assigned what it formerly had. It changes the underlying construction but does not modify the surface manifestation.
• Borrowing: Replication of incorporated borrowing influences the host language found in contact. According to Aitchison, this will usually be for conscious reasons of prestige, and therefore likely to happen if the host language has a structural internal need for the foreign construction. It must also fit native structures.
• Word Order: There were three basic word orders: Subject-Verb-Object (SVO), Subject-Object-Verb (SOV).
• Grammaticalization: An evolution whereby units lose semantic complexity, pragmatic significance, and phonetic substance. Basically, words gradually shift from having a specific, concrete meaning to an abstract grammatical role, serving as functions like prepositions, pronouns, or auxiliaries. These are ‘closed class’ words.

Germanic Languages

• Indo-European Language Family: The biggest in the world, with about half the global population speaking an Indo-European language. The first living languages belong to this family. Proto-Indo-European (Proto-IE) was spoken thousands of years ago; with no written records, linguists reconstructed it using the comparative method. Noun cases (as in Latin) meant inflected forms were used. Core vocabulary was reconstructed thanks to cognates.
• Proto-Germanic: The ancestor group from which Germanic languages (including English) come. Supposed to have split sometime between 2000-500 BCE. Future tribes belonged to the western area. Entirely prehistoric, no recorded earliest stages. History of Proto-Germanic is believed to be fundamentally dialectically colored. In its later stages, dialectal differences grew, appearing divided into dialectical groups and tribal dialects.

Migration Branches & Key Changes

Migration branches: First, towards the Scandinavian peninsula (North: Swedish, Danish). South remained in Europe (return to mainland). West Germanic (Dutch, German). East (extinct branches). Major changes took place in Germanic languages:

• Distinctive Vocabulary: A large number of cognates.
• Simplified Verbal System: Their systems kept past and present, losing many distinctions.
• Preterit Dental Suffix: Introduced for forming the past tense.
• Double Adjectival Declension: Using adjectives (weak with definite article, strong when stood alone).
• Fixed Accentual System: Developed a stress system where the main stress fell almost always on the first syllable.
• Vocalizations: Vowels underwent changes (e.g., *o* became *a* in Latin).
• Grimm’s Law: A set of systematic sound changes that occurred early, distinguishing Germanic languages from Proto-Indo-European (e.g., *p* > *f*, *b* > *p*, *t* > *th*, *d* > *t*, *k* > *h*, *g* > *k*).
• Intermediate consonants: The previous syllable doesn’t skip a line.

• Core Vocabulary: Everyday essential communication across most domains. Normally includes body parts, natural elements, fundamental actions, etc. They are resistant and least borrowed.
• Comparative Method: Refers to the process of categorizing shared features such as ancestry and phonetics. All English has been around 400 BCE-1000 CE. Linguists use this method to reconstruct languages by analyzing their descendants.

Linguistic Contacts & English History

The English Language has been changing for centuries now. To understand how Old English evolved into Modern English, we have to take a look into the British Isles’ history.

Periodization of the English Language

• Pre-Old English: From the 5th – 7th centuries. There are no written records of language. Though, we know Celts (who spoke Gaelic) were controlled by the Romans (who spoke Latin), who accepted the Celts’ religion and customs in exchange for taxation.
• Old English (OE): 5th-11th centuries. There was a major change in inflections. In the 5th century, Germanic tribes from the German coastlands invaded the Isles. Angles and Saxons were the most influential (the term Anglo-Saxon gives the name of the country: *Engla land* -> England), but they were also followed by Jutes and Kents. They had traded with Romans and adopted some words (e.g., *cheese*), even used Latin as the church’s language after Christianization (7th century). Anglo-Saxons settled in modern England, established kingdoms, and gradually displaced Celts from their original territory, which only remained in Wales and Scotland. They unified, and if at first each had its customs, they created a united nation without a standard language. In the 9th century, Scandinavians (Vikings, Danes) conquered all seven kingdoms; only Wessex King reconquered South England. In the 10th-11th centuries, England was lost again. This constant turmoil left several changes in vocabulary, spelling, and grammar.
  • Spelling: Letters like *q, v, z* were not common. Certain runes or unique symbols appeared. Combinations disappeared (e.g., *folc*, *hl* for *half*, *lh* for *wealh*, *hn* for *hnuts*). Also had different sound combinations like *sc* (sh) in *fisc, scip, biscope*; *hw* (wh) in *hwer, hwaet*; *cw* (qu) in *cwic, cwel*; *cg* (dge) in *ecg, bricg*.
  • Vocabulary: Approximately 50,000-60,000 words, and 99% was Germanic vocabulary. *Heiti* and *Kennings*, two poetic forms, were commonly used (e.g., *báru-fákr* ‘waves’ steed’, *gjálfr-marr* ‘sea steed’, *grennir gunn mas* ‘feeder of war-gull’). In addition, many words were formed thanks to compounding (e.g., *leohtfaet* ‘light-vessel’ -> ‘lamp’, *daegred* ‘day-red’ -> ‘dawn’). Some core vocabulary related to family and time was created in this era (e.g., *day, night, morning, evening, week, year, month, father, mother, son, daughter, brother, kin, sister*).
  • Grammar: Rich use of inflections to show grammatical roles (as in German). There were three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. Adjectives were divided into strong and weak. There was a use of double negative, and dual case of pronominal (e.g., *wit* ‘we two’, *git* ‘you two’). Word order was much more flexible because word endings indicated grammatical function.
  • Lexical Borrowings: Most Latin loans from this period are shared by other Germanic languages since they were ‘continental borrowings’ borrowed over the centuries before the migration of West Germanic tribes to Britain. But, the influence of Old Norse (Scandinavian) was different since it resulted from the coexistence of two related languages and occurred exclusively through the spoken language. The influx of loanwords must have occurred in the last third of the 9th and the beginning of 10th century, like *egg, skirt*, and pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs.

Going back to Latin, some of the words that came from it ended up with two versions; this phenomenon is known as doublets (e.g., *stratum* -> *street*, *mint* -> monetary disk, or *shrive* -> *scribe*).

• Middle English (ME): 11th-15th centuries. There was a major typological change. Language influenced by several important events. Firstly, the Norman Conquest (1066): French-speaking army defeated Anglo-Saxons at the Battle of Hastings, settled the country, forming a triglossia. William I seized political, economic, and religious power. Normans became lords of the Anglo-Saxon community but couldn’t suppress English. After more kings (e.g., King John lost Normandy), it marked a nation that adopted English. However, French had already left borrowings and influence on the language. By the end of the 14th century, Parliament created laws establishing English as official. In addition, Caxton’s printing press made possible the diffusion of a standardized version; presses were mostly located in London, meaning the standard developed from that dialect.

Linguistic Communities (12th Century)

During the 12th century, three main languages were used in British territory, each with a different role. Latin: mainly church, schools. French: spoken by ruling class, law, administration. English: seen as a low-status dialect, also because there was no unified standard either. By the 13th century, English was Anglicized after the loss of Normandy. Thousands of French words entered the vocabulary. Finally, English began to mark nationality. Great changes:

• Spelling: Changes like *hw* -> *wh*; *cw* -> *qu*; *sc* -> *sh*. New letter combinations (*ie* in *theef* > *thief*, *ck* in *cwic* > *quick*, *ph* in *phantom*).
• Vocabulary: Around 10,000 words were added. This was in part, thanks to the addition of new prefixes and suffixes (e.g., *pre-, sub-, dis-, -ance, -ant, -ence, inter-*).
• Grammar: There was a loss of inflections, and grammatical gender. As inflections disappeared, words began to take new roles (noun, verb), and a fixed word order developed. The use of double and even triple negation was still very common.

1066-1250: About 900 words were borrowed during this phase, most of them had Anglo-Norman phonology (in literacy: *stor, lay, rime*; religious services and social roles: *messenger, noble, baron, juggler*). Heavy borrowing from French in many areas: *felon, evidence, petition, inquest*; government/administration: *chancellor, treason, empire, royal, vassal, prince*; and ecclesiastical/theology: *clergy, convent, virgin, adore, confess*, among others.

• Modern English (ModE): 15th century onwards. The consolidation of Standard English occurred. The first dictionary that established grammar rules was created. The shift between Late Middle English to Early Modern English included the Great Vowel Shift, meaning pronunciation changed dramatically, but language had already been standardized. This phenomenon explains why spelling and phonetics sometimes often don’t align. Imperialist expansion occurred, and English evolved in different countries. Importance given to science and imperialism at the time helped expand English. With the colonization of North America came a new variation known as American English. Today (20th century onwards), hegemony of variations.

• Diglossia: For sociolinguistics, a situation where two distinct varieties of the same or closely related languages are used within a single speech community, each variety serving different functions and domains. Diglossia is characteristic of communities rather than individuals (individuals may be bilingual). Societies can be diglossic. In other words, the term describes societal, institutionalized bilingualism required to cover all of a community’s needs. There can be some diglossic situations with very limited individual bilingualism. Varieties are classified as High (formal, authoritarian settings) and Low (informal, everyday contexts).
• Code: Refers to any system of communication used by a group of people. It’s a natural, general term to describe a dialect without attaching cultural connotations.
• Domain of Use: A concept referring to the specific context in which a particular code is used. It includes factors like participants, setting, purpose, and norms. Understanding domains is essential for explaining code-switching. Domains can be family, education, workplace, etc. Though not always congruent, people select a code because it makes it easier to discuss a topic, regardless of whom they are speaking to. For instance, at home, work, or school, using the code associated with that domain. Usage leads to code-switching: the practice of alternating between two or more codes in conversation.

The Rise of Standard English

Firstly, let’s acknowledge the difference between accent, dialect, and language.

• (Standard) Language: Is a system of communication shared by a community of speakers, which follows a set of rules or norms agreed upon by institutions, and that can be used in a variety of situations while staying consistent to a structure.
• Dialect: A version or variation of a language which shows a specific group you belong to. People from different regions or social groups might pronounce words differently, use unique expressions, or have slightly different grammar. Any variety characterized by systematic differences in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary from other varieties of the same language is called a dialect. Everyone speaks at least one dialect, and those who speak in a speech community, though on a very personal level, have their *idiolect*. Dialectology is the study of regional dialects.
• Accent: Refers specifically to pronunciation. It’s a subgroup of how we say a language. Everyone has an accent; it’s not a question of having ‘an accent’ versus not having one. Note that one can speak another language while using their native accent (e.g., Boston or Brooklyn English accents).

To understand whether something is a language or a dialect, we take into account mutual intelligibility. Two languages can’t be mutually intelligible. Each has systematicity and tends to follow more strict, consistent rules. Functions performed and wider perceptions matter. Languages foster dialects and identity.

Regarding Standards and Ideology

A standard language is not a linguistic entity but rather an abstraction, since nobody truly speaks it without variations. Standard language is an ideological concept established by prestige. It reflects the preferences of the ruling class and is promoted as the ‘correct’ form. This isn’t actual superiority; there are no inherently correct, incorrect, or superior forms. It becomes recognized through dictionaries, scholars, and acceptance by the population. Standard languages spread through mass media, educational systems, and bodies like academies. It involves changes and codification into a written standard.

Historical Process of Standardization in English

• 12th Century: During this era, Britain was a triglossic community, meaning three languages (Latin, French, English) were at the center of power, but none was standardized.
• 13th Century: After the fall of the Norman Conquest, French started becoming a marker of nationality.
• 14th-15th Centuries: Selection began. The dialect spoken in Parliament, thanks to Caxton’s printing press, and in the capital London, became normalized.
• 16th Century: Medieval English transitioned to Early Modern English. Again, literacy pressure towards standardization arose.
• 17th Century: Grammars were created for new education. The King James Bible arose. A time of stigmatization. English expanded to other countries due to colonization. Also, a revival of classics with borrowings from Latin and Greek.
• 18th Century: Scientific rationalism affected language, believing it should be logical. A purist movement emphasized the necessity to fix and conserve language. Both common and prestigious forms were associated with those who held prestige in society. No variety can be legitimately considered ‘better’ than others. The difference lies in what one wishes to capture when labeling this: if it fulfills some general guidelines, is used in schools, and taught to foreigners.

Learning Summary

Language is an arrangement of arbitrary symbols possessing agreed-upon significance within a community, understood in independent immediate contexts, and connected in regular ways. It means communication among members of society. A symbolic system distinguishes a group; it belongs outside ethnicities, race, or tribe. It is a central feature of ethnic integrity and national identity. Standardized languages get their formality and communicative function.

Standardization

From a linguistic point of view, language is divided into non-standard and standard kinds. Standard language is generally writing that has undergone a degree of regularization to make it legal, official, and a recognized, prestigious variety. Therefore, it is particularly acceptable to most people. It is codified. Usually involves the development of spelling books and grammars.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Standardization

• Advantages: Concerned with quality, makes language useful. Serves as a model, unifies, symbolizes speakers, easier to teach and learn.
• Disadvantages: Deals with causes of problems, tends to stop somebody succeeding, making progress. Creates a sense of elitism and inferiority. Doesn’t value low-status dialects, neglects cultures that aren’t dominant groups.

Role of Linguists/Grammarians

Responsible for undertaking standardization. Standard language is a result of sociopolitical processes, including bureaucratic institutions and schools. They focus on features like word choice and writing. The process goes through a series of steps:

• Selection: Pick an elevated variety, likely the biggest and most powerful.
• Codification: Norms governing the selected variety are formulated and set down definitively in grammars, spellers, and manuals of style.
• Elaboration: Necessary ways of talking (e.g., technology, commerce) will be developed. In the first instance, it may borrow or invent new terms.
• Acceptance: Overcomes rival varieties, promotes spread, establishes, and enforces norms.

• Accent: Today, it specifically pronounces and focuses on phonology, including intonation, stress, rhythm, and articulation of sounds. It does not include vocabulary. Often regionally and socially defined.
• Language: A variety, therefore involving orthographic, morphological, and syntactical features.