The Dominate: Late Roman Empire (235-565 AD)
The Dominate (235 AD – 565 AD) was the despotic last phase of government in the ancient Roman Empire. It spanned from the establishment of the Empire in 27 BC to the formal collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD.
Crisis and Military Anarchy
In the year 235 AD, the last emperor of the Severan dynasty, which had maintained order, relative peace, and the outline of the Roman Empire, died. His death initiated a period characterized by military anarchy.
In the third century AD, Roman-dominated villages were in permanent revolt against Rome, especially in the East (against the Persians), and in the West (against the Germans). During the next 50 years, the military played an increasingly prominent role in decision-making and choosing emperors, which became a destabilizing element. More than 20 emperors succeeded each other during those 50 years.
Changes in Citizenship and Values
In 212 AD, Emperor Antoninus Caracalla granted Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Roman Empire. This act led to a perceived loss of old values and traditions.
Origins of the Term ‘Dominate’
The word “Dominate” derives from the Latin dominus, meaning lord or master, like an owner in front of his slave. This term had been used informally to address emperors since the Julio-Claudian dynasty, but never as an official title. Tiberius, in particular, is known for having openly vilified it. It became common with Diocletian, who is therefore considered the first ruler of the Dominate.
It is at this time that the imperial title, Dominus noster (“our Lord”), began appearing on coins and other official pieces.
Transition from Principality
The first phase of imperial government, known as the Principality, maintained the formalities of the (constitutionally never abolished) Republic. This era is generally considered to have concluded with the Crisis of the Third Century (235-284 AD), which ended when Diocletian became emperor.
Diocletian’s Reforms and the Tetrarchy
Diocletian introduced a new system of rule: the Tetrarchy, a coalition of four rulers. He and his colleagues and successors (in two imperial territories, East and West) chose to stop using the title princeps. They openly acknowledged the harsh reality of imperial power and adopted a Hellenistic style of government, influenced by the worship of deities in ancient Egypt and the Persian Empire, rather than the tradition of civil cooperation from the Roman Republic.
Divine Status and Imperial Majesty
Arguably, more crucial than the title chosen was the earlier adoption of divine status as divus. Originally a posthumous honor recognized by the Senate, it was later granted to the Emperor during his lifetime (and to other family members), making it an unwritten privilege of the crown.
Another clear sign of the elevated imperial status was that the Emperor embodied the concept (abstract for the Republic) of the majesty of Rome. Any crime against him could be punished as high treason.
A Gradual Transformation
Contemporary historians reject the interpretation of a clear transition from the Principality to the Dominate. They view it as a more subtle and gradual transformation, in which Diocletian’s reforms, while significant, are just one point in a long list of changes. However, the distinction between the two main phases of imperial government remains important and useful.