The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera in Spain
The Crisis of Liberal Democracies After World War I
After the First World War, the liberal democracies entered a period of crisis. Some of the identified causes were the inefficiency of parliament and the ineffectiveness of political parties, which were accused of focusing on their own interests instead of the needs of the people.
It became clear that effective and strong state governments were needed. However, the liberal democratic state was attacked from two opposing fronts:
- Socialism, strengthened after the war, advocated for a strong state governed by the “dictatorship of the proletariat.”
- Fascism, a defender of the authoritarian state, was fueled by intensified nationalism. Although it only triumphed in Italy and Germany, it spread to most of Europe, inspiring dictatorships in other countries.
Spain’s Revolutionary Phase (1917-1923)
After the events of 1917, Spain entered a revolutionary phase marked by the decline of the Canovist system. Between 1917 and 1923, during the years of rule by concentration, the country experienced intense social unrest, manifested in strikes led by the anarcho-syndicalist movement.
Workers joined the CNT unions and achieved significant employment benefits, such as the 8-hour workday and wages set by committees of employers and employees. The Spanish working class was also influenced by the Bolshevik revolution in Russia. However, the CNT, along with the UGT and PSOE, rejected the Soviet’s call to join the Third International and opposed Marxism.
Following this rejection, violence intensified, particularly in Barcelona. Two factors further aggravated the political situation: the assassination of Prime Minister Eduardo Dato and the “Annual Disaster” in the war in Morocco.
The Coup d’état of Primo de Rivera (1923)
The events in Morocco shocked public opinion. Taking advantage of the situation, General Miguel Primo de Rivera staged a coup d’état from Barcelona on September 13, 1923. King Alfonso XIII then commissioned Primo de Rivera to form an authoritarian regime.
Primo de Rivera abolished the parliamentary regime, the constitution, and dissolved the courts, effectively ending the Restoration. The dictatorship was initially welcomed by many, including the “mass neutral” (tired of the chaos), the church, the army, the King, and the bourgeoisie. They believed the dictatorship would put an end to the labor movement and the old political parties.
The Two Phases of the Dictatorship
The dictatorship of Primo de Rivera can be divided into two phases:
- The Military Directory (1923-1925): This phase was characterized by social peace, public order, and efficient management. Notably, it saw the end of the war in Morocco, thanks to the support of France, which helped with the Alhucemas landing. Primo de Rivera decided to perpetuate his rule by including some civilian politicians in the government.
- The Civil Directory (1925-1930): This phase saw the rise of José Calvo Sotelo. The decision to perpetuate the dictatorial regime sparked criticism and rejection from many, including the renowned intellectual Miguel de Unamuno.
Achievements and Failures of the Dictatorship
Social Achievements: The creation of parliamentary committees proved to be an effective instrument in regulating employment. These committees were supported by the PSOE and its leader, Francisco Largo Caballero.
Economic Achievements: To overcome the post-war crisis, the dictatorship implemented interventionist economic policies and encouraged tariff protection for domestic production. Basic industries received increased protection, and CAMPSA was created as an oil monopoly. Tourism was also promoted. A public works policy was undertaken, creating a road network, improving railways, and organizing hydraulic confederations.
However, the enormous costs of these projects, along with the Universal Exhibition in Barcelona and the Ibero-American Exposition in Seville, increased public debt. The “Crack of the Bag” (the Wall Street Crash of 1929) adversely affected the Spanish economy, leading to company closures and unemployment.
Political Failures: In the political field, Primo de Rivera attempted to establish a single party with fascist influence, the Patriotic Union, and drafted a new constitution. However, he failed to gain support for these initiatives. He also faced growing discontent from various sectors, including Catalan nationalists (due to the abolition of the Commonwealth), intellectuals, the military, and even King Alfonso XIII.
Primo de Rivera, demoralized by the crisis, resigned on January 30, 1930, and went into exile in Paris. The King then asked General Dámaso Berenguer to form a new government, known as the “Dictablanda” (soft dictatorship).
Implications of the Dictatorship
The end of the dictatorship paved the way for the fall of the monarchy and the proclamation of the Second Republic. The monarchy had been severely weakened after violating the 1876 constitution, dissolving the courts, and failing to call new elections. The King only retained the support of the army.
Following Primo de Rivera’s resignation, Alfonso XIII tasked Dámaso Berenguer with forming a government to restore constitutional normality without jeopardizing the monarchy. However, the situation had deteriorated significantly. Berenguer ruled by decree and postponed the convening of a Constituent Assembly, leading to growing unrest, especially among students.
Republicans signed the Pact of San Sebastian on August 27, 1930, with the goal of ending the monarchy. They pursued two lines of action: a revolutionary approach and a political one. Meanwhile, intellectuals, including José Ortega y Gasset, openly criticized the monarchy. A military uprising was planned but failed due to lack of support.
Berenguer was forced to resign, and the King appointed Admiral Juan Bautista Aznar to form a government of “concentration.” Municipal elections were held in April 1931, resulting in a victory for the Republicans. The Republic was proclaimed in Eibar and Barcelona, and King Alfonso XIII, advised to abdicate, went into exile.
Conclusion
The Primo de Rivera regime was a unique dictatorship that sought to establish a stable and constitutional basis. It was supported by the military, the Catholic Church, and large landowners. While it brought a period of social peace, material prosperity, and infrastructure development, it ultimately failed to address the underlying political and social issues that led to the end of the monarchy and the Spanish Civil War.