The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera in Spain: A Historical Analysis
Introduction
To understand the military coup that ushered in the first dictatorship of the twentieth century in Spain, it’s crucial to examine the circumstances that made it possible, both internationally and within Spain itself.
1.1 International Context
The international context revolves around the consequences of World War I, which led to the collapse of several empires and the emergence of new states. These states adopted different political systems, but a fundamental fact influenced the rise of authoritarian regimes in Europe:
- The Triumph of the Bolshevik Revolution: The establishment of communism in Russia in 1917 sparked fears among European middle classes that the revolution would spread to their countries. Communist parties emerged across Europe, aiming to replicate the Soviet model. This contributed to:
- The Rise of Authoritarian Regimes and Fascism: In Italy, following the “March on Rome” by the fascists in 1922, King Victor Emmanuel entrusted the government to Mussolini, who established a fascist dictatorship. Authoritarian regimes also took hold in Central Europe and the Balkans. The Weimar Republic in Germany struggled under the harsh conditions of the Versailles Treaty, and France’s occupation of the Ruhr coalfield further escalated tensions and radicalized German nationalism. In 1923, Hitler’s failed coup attempt in Munich foreshadowed his future rise. Hungary became a dictatorship in 1920, followed by Poland, Lithuania, and Portugal in 1926.
- The Decline of Democracies: Only France, Britain, and the United States continued to champion democracy, which was facing a significant crisis. It is within this context that the coup of General Primo de Rivera must be understood.
1.2 Internal Causes
The crisis of 1917 had several consequences that ultimately led to Primo de Rivera’s coup:
1. Political Crisis
The crisis of 1917, marked by military uprisings, parliamentary struggles, and the general strike of August 1917, failed to dismantle the Restoration political system, but it initiated a gradual decline. The period from 1917 to 1923 was turbulent. “Governments of concentration” were formed, integrating other parties (including Catalan) alongside conservatives and liberals. However, they failed to achieve stability, with frequent ministerial resignations and party withdrawals of support. Between 1918 and 1923, there were 11 governments with numerous crises. This instability fostered the monarch’s increasing involvement in the government, who even declared the need for a solution “with or without the Constitution.”
This period also saw the rise of Catalan and Basque nationalism, which, though not yet radical, were viewed with suspicion by conservatives who feared for the unity of Spain. The growth of socialist and republican movements, coupled with the birth of the PCE in 1921, alarmed the oligarchy and the army, leading them to consider an authoritarian government as a solution. The middle classes, disillusioned with electoral fraud, political corruption, and rising prices, shared this sentiment.
2. Economic Crisis
During World War I, Spain maintained neutrality, but the war had significant effects on its economy. Spanish society was divided between pro-Allied and pro-German factions. Neutrality initially favored businesses and led to economic expansion, but it also caused a sharp increase in prices, fueling discontent among the middle and lower classes. The end of the war brought a halt to orders, factory closures, and rising unemployment.
3. Social Unrest
Social unrest was widespread, with Barcelona and Andalusia (Cordoba, Seville, and Cadiz) as key centers of conflict. In Barcelona, a strike at “The Canadian,” the company supplying electricity to the city, lasted for 44 days due to the company’s intransigence, leading to the government’s resignation. The new conservative government intensified repression, resulting in mass layoffs.
Between 1919 and 1922, Spain experienced a period of intense conflict. Violent anarchist groups like “Los Solidarios” were active in Barcelona. Businessmen and the Employers’ Federation hired gunmen and created the Free Trade Union to counter the anarchist CNT. This resulted in the era of gangsterism (1916-1923), marked by numerous attacks and assassinations. The situation worsened with the “Ley de Fugas,” which allowed the shooting of detainees. The Andalusian countryside, particularly Cordoba, was another center of conflict. The impact of the Bolshevik revolution in Russia also played a significant role.
The influenza epidemic of 1918, which caused high mortality, further contributed to the unrest.
4. The Moroccan War
Spain’s presence in Morocco was a crucial factor in the early 20th century. After the loss of its colonies in 1898, this presence was supported by the army and the king but opposed by leftist parties and the working class. Economic interests related to mining and railway construction, controlled by the bourgeoisie seeking to recover from colonial losses, were also heavily involved in Morocco.
Spain shared the protectorate of Morocco with France, with borders established in the Algeciras Conference of 1906. In 1909, tribal attacks on Spanish economic interests led to the “War of Melilla,” sparking popular opposition in the Tragic Week in Barcelona. In 1912, France and Spain agreed on a new division of the protectorate, leaving Spain with the less prosperous northern Rif region. The tribes there resisted the occupation, leading to a protracted war until 1926.
During World War I, the region remained relatively calm, but afterward, Spanish forces undertook a major expansion. General Berenguer aimed to occupy the western Yebala territories, defended by Raisuni, while General Fernández Silvestre advanced from Melilla against Abd-el-Krim in the Rif. The Spanish army, composed of regular troops, native levies, and legionnaires (The Legion was founded in 1920 by Africanist officers like Millán Astray, Sanjurjo, and Franco), was disorganized and faced a challenging terrain.
In the summer of 1921, General Fernández Silvestre launched a risky and poorly planned campaign around Melilla. Abd-el-Krim’s surprise attack on the Spanish post of Annual resulted in a devastating defeat, with heavy casualties and the loss of territory. The “Disaster of Annual” further aggravated the already deteriorating political situation. The subsequent investigation, known as the “Expediente Picasso,” aimed to determine responsibility for the disaster. The left accused the army of negligence and even implicated the king in encouraging Silvestre’s recklessness. The investigation was never concluded due to the coup.
The assassination of the Conservative Prime Minister, Eduardo Dato, in 1921, further fueled public discontent. All these factors created a climate where Captain General of Catalonia, Miguel Primo de Rivera, needed only to issue a manifesto to launch his coup.
II. The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera
2.1 The Coup
In the spring of 1923, following the Liberal Party’s electoral victory, a conspiracy began to take shape. On September 13, 1923, Captain General Miguel Primo de Rivera launched his coup in Barcelona, with the support of Sanjurjo in Zaragoza and the Duke of Tetuan in Madrid. The government appealed to Alfonso XIII to intervene, but he hesitated. The following day, he finally tasked Primo de Rivera with forming a government, making him partly responsible for the establishment of the dictatorship. His actions have been debated by historians, but they can be explained by Spain’s political deterioration and the perceived success of the Italian example.
On the same day, Primo de Rivera issued a “Manifesto to the Nation and the Army,” declaring that the coup was not against the monarchy but against those who were unable to govern effectively. He promised to “save the Fatherland” and “free it from professional politicians,” undertaking urgent reforms in the economic, social, and political spheres.
Primo de Rivera claimed his government would be transitional, a “parenthesis of recovery,” but it lasted much longer. He was a paternalistic and pacifistic figure, which gained him the support of the army and the consent (explicit or tacit) of much of the country. Two key social sectors supported him: the bourgeoisie, particularly in Catalonia, who desired “order,” and the labor movement. The PSOE and UGT did not organize any resistance and even collaborated with the government. The anarchists and communists, weakened by the events in Barcelona, were in no position to oppose the coup. Primo de Rivera also enjoyed the support of a large “neutral mass”—apolitical citizens tired of the chaos and drawn to his paternalistic image. Only a few intellectuals, such as Azaña, Madariaga, Unamuno, and Valle-Inclán, openly opposed the dictatorship. The Church was initially hesitant to support the dictator, given his socialist connections.
2.2 Stages of the Dictatorship
Politically, Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship can be divided into two distinct stages: the Military Directory (1923-1925) and the Civil Directory (1925-1930).
A. Military Directory (1923-1925)
Alfonso XIII accepted the coup and appointed Primo de Rivera as Prime Minister. The dictator was advised by a “Military Directory” composed of army generals and a rear admiral.