The Democratic Sexenio: Spain’s 1st Republic & Restoration
1. The Revolution of 1868
Economic and Social Causes
Financial crisis of 1866, crop failures, and unemployment in 1867 and 1868 fueled social unrest.
Political Causes
The Moderate Party’s decline, marked by the deaths of O’Donnell and Narváez, weakened Isabel II’s support within the army. The increasingly corrupt liberal regime further eroded public trust. Opposition parties saw revolution as the only path to reform.
Background and Triumph
Early revolutionary attempts like the Noche de San Daniel (1865) and the sergeants’ uprising at San Gil Barracks (1866) were met with harsh repression. However, the 1866 Pact of Ostend united Progressives and Democrats. In September 1868, Admiral Topete led a naval revolt in Cádiz, joined by Serrano and Prim’s manifesto promising a new constitution, universal suffrage, and expanded freedoms. The Battle of Alcolea saw the defeat of Isabel II’s forces, leading to her exile.
2. Serrano’s Regency
First Steps
The provisional government, led by Serrano, implemented key reforms: freedom of expression, association, and assembly; dissolution of revolutionary juntas; religious freedom; and the suppression of religious orders. Constituent Cortes elections were called.
Political Trends
The political landscape was diverse, with Democrats, Monarchists, Progressives, and Unionists vying for power. Carlists represented the right, while Republicans held the left.
3. The Democratic Monarchy of Amadeo I
The Constitution of 1869
This constitution enshrined democratic ideals: universal suffrage, freedom of thought and expression, inviolability of domicile, freedom of worship, and rights of assembly and association. Sovereignty resided in the nation, with a democratic monarchy as the chosen form of government. A system of checks and balances with legislative dominance was established.
Amadeo’s Reign (1871-1873)
Prim’s assassination destabilized Amadeo I’s reign from the outset. Divisions among the supporting parties and opposition from Carlists, Cuban independence fighters, and Republicans plagued his rule. Amadeo I abdicated in 1873.
4. The First Republic (1873-1874)
Early Governments
Estanislao Figueras, the first president, faced internal conflicts and resigned. Pi y Maragall, the second president, relied on the National Militia to suppress monarchist uprisings but also resigned. Federalists won a majority in the subsequent elections.
Federal Republic and Cantonal Uprising
The Federal Republic was proclaimed in June 1873. However, the Cantonalist uprising, advocating for autonomous cantons, led to chaos. Nicolás Salmerón used the army to quell the rebellion.
Republic of Order and its Collapse
Emilio Castelar’s authoritarian measures to restore order, including restricting freedoms and strengthening the army, ultimately led to General Pavia’s coup.
5. The Bourbon Restoration
End of the Republic
General Pavia’s coup ended the Republic. Serrano led a new provisional government, backed by the army. Alfonso XII’s Manifesto of Sandhurst promised a constitutional monarchy. General Martínez Campos proclaimed Alfonso XII king in Sagunto.
6. The Restoration (1874-1923)
Genesis
The Restoration was driven by social groups seeking stability: landowners, industrialists, Cuban plantation owners, and the Church. Cánovas del Castillo orchestrated the political system.
Cánovas’ System
Key elements included shared sovereignty between the king and Cortes, and the turnismo system where Conservatives and Liberals alternated in power. Caciquismo, or local political bosses, manipulated elections to maintain this system.
Constitution of 1876
This constitution established a bicameral legislature, reinforced the monarchy’s role, and initially restricted suffrage (later expanded to universal male suffrage in 1890). Catholicism was the official religion.
Reigns of Alfonso XII and Maria Christina
Cánovas’ conservative government (1875-1880) focused on consolidating power and centralizing authority. Sagasta’s liberal government (1885-1890) expanded freedoms and introduced universal male suffrage.
Alfonso XIII’s Reign
Alfonso XIII’s reign continued the turnismo system until Primo de Rivera’s 1923 coup, marking the end of this period.