The Crusades: A History of Religious Warfare
Background
By the late 11th century, Western Europe had become a significant power, but still lagged behind other Mediterranean civilizations like the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic Empire. The Byzantine Empire was losing territory to the Seljuk Turks, who had defeated the Byzantine army at the Battle of Manzikirt in 1071. After years of instability, General Alexius Comnenus seized the Byzantine throne in 1081 and consolidated control as Emperor Alexius I.
In 1095, Alexius requested mercenary troops from the West to help against the Turks. Relations between Eastern and Western Christians had been strained, but were improving. At the Council of Clermont in November 1095, Pope Urban II called on Western Christians to aid the Byzantines and recapture the Holy Land from Muslim control. This call to arms received a massive response from both the military elite and ordinary citizens. Those who joined the armed pilgrimage were to wear a cross as a symbol of the Church.
The First Crusade (1096-99)
Four Crusader armies were formed from troops of different Western European regions, led by Raymond of Saint-Gilles, Godfrey of Bouillon, Hugh of Vermandois, and Bohemond of Taranto. They were set to depart for Byzantium in August 1096. A less organized group known as the “People’s Crusade” set off earlier under Peter the Hermit. Peter’s army caused destruction in the Byzantine Empire and, ignoring Alexius’ advice, crossed the Bosporus in early August. Turkish forces defeated them at Cibotus. Another group, led by Count Emicho, massacred Jews in the Rhineland, causing a crisis in Jewish-Christian relations.
When the main Crusader armies arrived in Constantinople, Alexius insisted they swear loyalty to him and recognize his authority over any conquered lands. Most resisted except Bohemond. In May 1097, the Crusaders and Byzantines attacked Nicea, the Seljuk capital, which surrendered in June. Despite worsening relations, they continued through Anatolia, capturing Antioch in June 1098. After internal struggles, they marched towards Jerusalem, then occupied by Egyptian Fatimids. In June 1099, they besieged Jerusalem, forcing its surrender by mid-July. Despite promises of protection, the Crusaders massacred many inhabitants upon entering the city.
The Crusader States and the Second Crusade (1147-49)
Many Crusaders returned home after their victory. Those who remained established four Crusader states: Jerusalem, Edessa, Antioch, and Tripoli. These states held the upper hand until around 1130 when Muslim forces began gaining ground in their jihad against the “Franks.” In 1144, the Seljuk general Zangi captured Edessa. News of this stunned Europe, leading to calls for another Crusade.
Led by King Louis VII of France and King Conrad III of Germany, the Second Crusade began in 1147. The Turks defeated Conrad’s forces at Dorylaeum in October. Louis and Conrad assembled their armies in Jerusalem and attacked Damascus. The city’s ruler was forced to call on Nur al-Din for aid. The combined Muslim forces defeated the Crusaders, ending the Second Crusade. Nur al-Din added Damascus to his empire in 1154.
The Third Crusade (1189-92)
After Crusader attempts to capture Egypt, Nur al-Din’s forces, led by Shirkuh and Saladin, seized Cairo in 1169. Saladin took control and began conquests, accelerating after Nur al-Din’s death in 1174. In 1187, Saladin launched a campaign against the Kingdom of Jerusalem, defeating the Christian army at Hattin and capturing the city.
These defeats inspired the Third Crusade, led by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, King Philip II of France, and King Richard I of England. Richard’s forces defeated Saladin’s at Arsuf in September 1191. Richard re-established Christian control over some areas and approached Jerusalem but refused to besiege it. In September 1192, Richard and Saladin signed a peace treaty that re-established the Kingdom of Jerusalem (without the city) and ended the Third Crusade.
From the Fourth to the Sixth Crusade (1198-1229)
Pope Innocent III called for a new Crusade in 1198, but power struggles led the Crusaders to divert their mission to overthrow the Byzantine emperor Alexius III. They installed his nephew, Alexius IV, in 1203. Alexius IV’s attempts to submit the Byzantine church to Rome met resistance, and he was overthrown in 1204. The Crusaders then attacked Constantinople, ending the Fourth Crusade with the city’s conquest and looting.
The rest of the 13th century saw various Crusades aimed at combating enemies of the Christian faith. The Albigensian Crusade (1208-29) targeted the Cathari sect in France, while the Baltic Crusades (1211-25) aimed to subdue pagans in Transylvania. The Fifth Crusade attacked Egypt but was forced to surrender in 1221. In the Sixth Crusade (1229), Emperor Frederick II negotiated the peaceful transfer of Jerusalem to Crusader control. The treaty expired a decade later, and Muslims regained control.
End of the Crusades
Throughout the late 13th century, Crusaders launched short-lived raids in the Holy Land. The Seventh Crusade (1239-41) briefly recaptured Jerusalem, but it was lost again in 1244. The Eighth Crusade (1249) against Egypt ended in defeat. The Mamluk dynasty rose to power in Egypt and halted the Mongol advance in 1260. Under Sultan Baybars, the Mamluks destroyed Antioch in 1268. Louis IX’s Ninth Crusade ended with his death in North Africa.
The Mamluk sultan Qalawan defeated the Mongols by 1281 and captured Tripoli in 1289. In the last major Crusade (1290), Venetian and Aragonese warships defended the remaining Crusader states. In 1291, Qalawan’s successor, al-Ashraf Khalil, besieged Acre, the Crusader capital. Acre fell after seven weeks, effectively ending the Crusades in the Holy Land.
The Church organized minor Crusades after 1291, but support dwindled by the 16th century with the rise of the Reformation and the decline of papal authority.
Did You Know?
The Children’s Crusade (1212) saw a group of children, adolescents, women, the elderly, and the poor march from the Rhineland to Italy, believing they were divinely instructed to march to the Holy Land.
Source: A&E Television Networks (2014)