The Crisis of the Spanish Restoration
The Crisis of the Spanish Restoration (1898-1923)
The Disaster of ’98 and the Loss of the Spanish Colonial Empire
In 1898, the explosion of the American cruiser Maine in Cuban waters led to the Spanish-American War. The war ended with the Treaty of Paris, in which Spain ceded Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and the island of Guam to the United States. This marked the end of the Spanish colonial empire in America and the Pacific. The defeat, known as the Disaster of ’98 in Spain, caused a shock to public opinion, demonstrating the inability of the ruling oligarchy to modernize the country. This event triggered the crisis of the Restoration.
The Rise of Military Power and Social Unrest
The crisis was accentuated in 1905 when some Catalan officers attacked and destroyed the printing presses of the Cu-Cut! magazine and the newspaper La Veu de Catalunya for criticizing the army and defending Catalan interests. The government did not dare to condemn the perpetrators. In 1906, the military imposed its power over civilian rule, obtaining the approval of the Law of Jurisdictions, which subjected crimes of opinion and actions against the unity of the motherland and the army to the military code. This situation is reflected in Document 1.
In 1907, Antonio Maura, a conservative liberal politician, was appointed Prime Minister by King Alfonso XIII. A supporter of undertaking a revolution from above, he wanted social improvements to avoid a potential revolution from below. Many of his proposals were blocked by the opposition of the dominant groups (for example, the electoral reform law, which aimed to address uncontested elections). In July 1909, attacks against railway workers near Melilla prompted the government to mobilize reservists. Public opinion on the left and the trade unions opposed the mobilization. This provoked a general strike in Barcelona, supported by radical socialists, anarchists, and republicans. The strike lasted a week, during which the masses controlled Barcelona. The week was severely repressed, and many of its organizers were executed (the Tragic Week). These events forced the fall of Maura and the appointment of the progressive liberal José Canalejas by the King.
Canalejas’ Reforms and the Growing Instability
After 1910, Canalejas introduced various proposals to address social issues: religious, regionalist, and labor-related. He created the Law of Congregations, which prohibited the establishment of new convents, the Law of Associations (similar to Maura’s), and a draft law that provided for compulsory military service with the abolition of exemptions. He also attempted to improve working conditions by imposing state arbitration in wage contracts. He was assassinated in 1912 by anarchists, and the Liberals’ decline and the significance of their proposals diminished.
In 1914, the government of Eduardo Dato declared Spain’s neutrality in World War I. This divided Spain between Germanophiles, who wanted to ally with Germany, and pro-Allies, who wanted to support France, defended by socialists and republicans. In 1917, a profound crisis of the Restoration system emerged, resulting from the convergence of three types of conflict: military, political, and social. The military crisis began with the emergence of the Military Juntas, corporate associations formed by middle and low-ranking officers to defend their professional and economic interests. Faced with the impotence of civilian power against the military, the government negotiated with the Juntas. From then on, the military would influence the appointment of Ministers of War.
A political crisis was triggered by the Parliamentary Assembly, formed by a small number of MPs led by Francesc Cambó, who insisted on the convening of a Constituent Assembly. The Assembly was declared illegal and failed due to lack of support. A social crisis was sparked by general strikes convened by socialists (UGT) and anarchists (CNT) due to rising prices and supply problems caused by World War I. This social conflict is reflected in Document 2. As of 1917, political and social instability became a constant in Spanish life, as reflected in Document 4. This instability manifested itself in the weakness of governments and the discrediting of the ruling political class. The dynastic parties fragmented, and the turn-taking system broke down. The king resorted to forming governments of concentration, composed of personalities representing various political groups. This instability was also manifested in social conflict, the increase in republican propaganda and activities, and the growth of regionalist and nationalist movements.
The Annual Disaster and the Rise of Primo de Rivera
In 1921, General Manuel Fernández Silvestre, aiming for a definitive victory in Morocco and encouraged by the King, made risky military maneuvers. The Rifian tribes attacked his positions, forcing a retreat and resulting in the deaths of numerous soldiers (the Annual Disaster), as reflected in Document 3. Numerous political groups and newspapers demanded accountability. An investigation (the Picasso Report) was launched, and suspicions arose that General Silvestre’s actions were influenced by King Alfonso XIII, increasing opposition to the monarchy.
In 1923, General Miguel Primo de Rivera led a coup and was appointed Prime Minister by the King, establishing a military dictatorship.