The Crisis of the Old Regime in Spain & American Independence
The Crisis of the Old Regime in Spain (1808-1833)
The war against the French invasion precipitated the crisis of the Ancien Régime in Spain. King Charles IV declared war on France, a conflict that ended in failure. Subsequently, Manuel Godoy, allied with Napoleon against Great Britain, secured authorization for French troops to traverse Spain to attack Portugal, as outlined in the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807).
Growing popular discontent culminated in the Mutiny of Aranjuez (1808). Napoleon then appointed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as the new King of Spain. This act ignited a widespread rebellion. On May 2, 1808, an uprising against French troops erupted in Madrid. Local boards were established to spearhead the resistance, coordinated by the Supreme Central Junta. The Supreme Board of Catalonia played a crucial role in defeating the French at the Battle of El Bruc. The crucial assistance of British troops, under the command of Wellington, significantly contributed to the defeat of the French.
In 1813, the Treaty of Valençay was signed: Ferdinand VII regained the crown, and Napoleon withdrew his troops from Spain.
The Cadiz Cortes and the Constitution of 1812
The Central Board convened a meeting of the Cortes in Cadiz, where the ideals of liberalism were championed. A pivotal decision was made for all attendees to vote collectively in Parliament. A Constitution was drafted in 1812, enshrining the fundamental principles of political liberalism: national sovereignty, separation of powers, universal male suffrage, and an extensive declaration of rights.
The Reign of Ferdinand VII: Absolutism and Liberal Resistance
Ferdinand VII, through a coup, abolished the Cortes and annulled the Constitution. He reinstated the Old Regime, leading to the arrest or exile of numerous liberals. Opponents of absolutism organized pronouncements, most of which were suppressed, and their leaders (Mina, Lacy, Porlier, etc.) executed.
In 1820, Colonel Riego initiated a successful pronouncement, ushering in the Liberal Triennium (1820-1823). The King was compelled to abide by the Constitution of 1812, an amnesty was declared, and elections were called. The National Militia, a revolutionary armed force dedicated to defending the liberal order, was established.
The King appealed to European powers for assistance in restoring absolutism. The Holy Alliance dispatched the “Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis,” under the command of the Duke of Angoulême, who entered Spain and reinstated Ferdinand VII to the throne.
Facing economic hardship, Ferdinand VII implemented a protectionist tariff to support Catalan manufacturers. A dynastic conflict arose because Ferdinand VII only had daughters, and the Salic Law prohibited female succession. Consequently, the King issued the Pragmatic Sanction, nullifying the previous law. Many absolutists, however, disagreed and maintained that the throne rightfully belonged to his brother, Charles. In 1827, the *Malcontents*, an ultraconservative faction in Catalonia, took up arms.
The Independence of Spanish America
The 19th century witnessed the independence of most of Spain’s American colonies. Several factors contributed to this:
- The dissemination of Enlightenment ideas and the principles of liberty and equality.
- The successful revolt of the North American colonies.
- The discontent of the Creole bourgeoisie (whites born in America), who refused to accept the authority of the Supreme Central Junta.
The primary centers of the independence movement were Venezuela, led by Simón Bolívar, and the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, led by José de San Martín. General San Martín secured independence from Spain. Bolívar founded Gran Colombia (comprising Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Panama). Iturbide achieved independence for Mexico in 1821. Antonio José de Sucre emancipated Peru and Bolivia.
Spain lost all its colonies except Cuba, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico. Spanish America fragmented into numerous republics. The post-colonial society was marked by significant social and economic inequalities.