The Crisis of the Old Regime and the Spanish American Wars of Independence

Posted on Oct 23, 2024 in History

The Crisis of the Old Regime (Borbónica Monarchy and the War of Independence)

In the early nineteenth century, Carlos IV was king, but the power was held by Godoy. Napoleon came to power in France and Spain was involved in several conflicts early in the century, such as the War of the Oranges, a war with Portugal in which the village of Olivenza was lost. Godoy refused Spanish participation against England, but the fleet was misled by the French and saw defeat at the hands of General Nelson at the Battle of Trafalgar. The Spanish Armada would never be as powerful again. In 1807, French troops were supposed to move into Portugal to control it and prevent British support. Godoy signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau, which would allow French troops to pass through the kingdom. However, the real intention of the French was to occupy the entire peninsula. Troops entered and occupied some Spanish cities, and the royal family fled to Andalusia, where they could retreat to America. Prince Ferdinand, supported by the court, promoted the Mutiny of Aranjuez, which caused the fall of Godoy and the abdication of Carlos IV in favor of his son. Father and son began to challenge each other for power, and Napoleon forced them to abdicate in his favor in Bayonne, making his brother, José I, king. In Madrid, on May 2, 1808, there was an uprising against the French, which spread throughout the territory and led to the War of Independence.

Characteristics of the War of Independence:

  • Total war
  • International: The French also faced Englishmen who were allied with the Spanish.
  • Popular war: Guerrillas appeared.
  • Civil war component: Supporters of the French king fought against those who rejected him.

Stages of the War of Independence:

  1. First Stage: The French advance was stopped with the victory at Bailén. The French retreated south from Madrid, and Napoleon came in person, subduing the country. Only Galicia and some isolated cities were left unoccupied.
  2. Second Stage: The French controlled most of the country, giving way to a guerrilla struggle (small groups of men who attacked by surprise, exploiting their knowledge of the terrain).
  3. Third Stage: The army of General Wellington landed in Portugal and joined the reorganized Spanish troops. They pursued the forces of José I, who fled to France, culminating in victory at the Battle of San Marcial. The French were expelled from the peninsula.

Political Aspects of the War:

Local and provincial boards were created, which organized resistance and formed the Central Governing Junta of the Kingdom. The boards came to power on behalf of the people, and institutions were forced to obey either José I or the Supreme Junta. Two trends emerged:

  • Francophiles: Accepted José I. They were partly enlightened and other opportunistic bureaucrats.
  • Patriots: Rejected the French king and only accepted Fernando VII. Within them, we find the absolutists (supporters of the former regime and a class society) and liberals (supporters of the political ideas of the French Revolution).

The Cortes of Cadiz and the Constitution of 1812

The Supreme Central Junta decided to convene a general court in Cadiz to counterbalance the reformist project of the afrancesados. The majority of deputies were elected from among the refugees in Cadiz. The absolutists saw these courts as a representation of the estates, and the liberals saw them as a representation of the nation. For two years, they drafted a constitution that was proclaimed in 1812, popularly known as “La Pepa”.

Main Aspects of the Constitution of 1812:

  • National sovereignty
  • Division of powers: Executive (king), legislative (courts with the king), and judicial (courts)
  • Constitutional monarchy: The king had to be sworn in and abide by the constitution, giving the courts power over the king.
  • Indirect universal suffrage
  • Right to free speech
  • Legal equality of citizens
  • Catholicism as the only religion

The constitution was complemented by other measures, such as the abolition of the lordships, the Inquisition, the guilds, the amortization of property, and freedom of the press, among others. All these measures were supposed to dismantle the old regime and replace it with a new one.

Fernando VII’s Reign: Restoration of Absolutism

In March 1814, Fernando VII returned to Spain. Liberals expected Fernando to approve the constitution upon his return, but he repealed it and restored the privileges of the clergy and nobility. It was the return of the old regime. Fernando ruled absolutely for six years. Liberals were persecuted and went into exile to avoid prison.

The liberals tried to restore liberalism through pronouncements.

Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)

A pronouncement in 1820, led by Colonel Riego, made Fernando swear to uphold the constitution. In 1823, the Holy Alliance sent an army called the Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis to Spain to re-establish Fernando’s absolute rule.

Second Absolutist Period (1823-1833)

In 1830, Fernando promulgated the Pragmatic Sanction so that his daughter, Isabel, could rule. Fernando died, and Isabel was called to rule, but since she was only three years old, her mother ruled in her place. The Carlist War then began because the king’s brother proclaimed himself King of Spain.

The Independence of American Colonies

Causes of Independence:

  • Ideological Cause: Ideas of the Enlightenment and the example of the United States.
  • Social Cause: Discontent of the native bourgeoisie, who were Spanish but did not feel American. They formed 20% of society, ahead of the indigenous, mestizo, and black populations.
  • Economic Cause: The colonial pact between the metropolis and the colony was unfair because it hurt the colony.
  • Political Cause: Mismanagement. Spain sent viceroys, governors, and courts, but the problems were settled in Spain.

Stages of the Independence Process:

  1. First Stage: Started after the defeat at Trafalgar, which left the Spanish fleet virtually annihilated, meaning that America was left almost unprotected. At the beginning of the War of Independence, America reacted to the French invasion of Spain by proclaiming their loyalty to Fernando VII and creating juntas, as in the peninsula. However, within these juntas, an insurrectionary movement started in 1810 because, in that year, the General Junta was dissolved and transferred its powers to the Council of Regency. From then on, the lack of Spanish government was proclaimed, and the process of emancipation began.
  2. Second Stage (1810-1814): Revolutionary movements arose that created new American governments. First, juntas were convened. These juntas organized armies and established relations with the United States and England. Finally, they summoned constitutional conventions.
  3. Third Stage (1815-1824): The war in Spain ended, and the first American independence movements were also ending. Fernando sent an army, which, in 1815, had controlled everything. However, between 1816 and 1824, independence was achieved, with key figures such as José de San Martín, Simón Bolívar, and Antonio José de Sucre. Simón Bolívar wanted to create something like the United States with the South American colonies, although this could not be finalized. At this stage, the support of England and the United States and the delivery of Rafael del Riego in 1820 with the troops who were waiting to board to go to America were essential.