The Crisis of the Old Regime and the Rise of Liberalism in Spain (1808-1868)
1. The Crisis of the Old Regime (1808-1814)
1.1 The Crisis of the Bourbon Monarchy
The monarchy of Charles IV reacted against the French Revolution by declaring war on France (1793-1795). The war was a failure, and from 1799, Manuel Godoy, the most influential minister, implemented a radical foreign policy. He allied with Napoleon to confront Great Britain and authorized the French army to cross Spain to attack Portugal (Treaty of Fontainebleau, 1807). The fear this provoked caused the Mutiny of Aranjuez in 1808, which forced the resignation of the minister and the abdication of the king in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII. Napoleon forced both to abdicate and appointed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as the new king of Spain.
1.2 The War of Independence (1808-1814)
The French occupation caused a popular revolt, and on May 2, 1808, the people of Madrid rose up against the French troops. Resistance groups were formed, and patriots organized guerrillas to harass the French. The war’s course changed in 1812 when Napoleon’s Russian campaign forced him to move part of his army to that country. The arrival of British troops was crucial in ending the war. In 1813, the French began to leave Spanish territory. That year, the Treaty of Valençay was signed, by which Ferdinand VII recovered the crown, and Napoleon withdrew his troops from Spain.
1.3 The Cortes of Cadiz
The country wanted a legitimate representative body to initiate a process of reforms. In 1810, the Central Junta convened a meeting of the Cortes in Cadiz to draft a constitution. The Constitution of 1812 reflected the basic principles of political liberalism: national sovereignty, division of powers, and citizen rights, including universal male suffrage. The liberals, who promoted the Constitution, wanted to apply everything legislated by the Cortes of Cadiz. The privileged, however, only wished for a return to the situation before 1808.
2. The Confrontation Between Absolutism and Liberalism
2.1 The Restoration of Absolutism
When Ferdinand VII returned to Spain in 1814, the liberals expected the monarch to immediately swear to uphold the Constitution of 1812. However, the absolutists pressured him to restore absolutism and repeal all liberal legislation. The king carried out a coup, closing the Cortes of Cadiz and nullifying the Constitution. With the support of the more conservative sectors of the army, the opposition to absolutism organized multiple pronouncements, most of which were suppressed, and their leaders executed.
2.2 The Liberal Triennium
The pronunciamiento led by Colonel Rafael del Riego succeeded in restoring the liberal regime. The king was forced to swear to uphold the Constitution of 1812, declare an amnesty, and convene elections. The national militia, a body of armed volunteers, was created to defend the liberal reform process. This order did not have the sympathy of Ferdinand VII, who sought help from European powers to restore absolutism. France, through the Holy Alliance, intervened militarily in Spain. The Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis entered Spain, defeated the liberals, and restored Ferdinand VII as an absolute monarch.
2.3 The Collapse of Absolutism
The return to absolutism was followed by repression against liberals. However, Ferdinand VII’s governments were unable to solve the country’s serious problems. The war against France had weakened the economy. The independence of the American colonies deprived the state coffers of an important source of income. Tax reform was essential to oblige the privileged to pay taxes. But these were the main defenders of absolutism, and the king could not attack their interests without harming his own. A dynastic conflict also arose. Ferdinand VII only had daughters, and the Salic Law prevented women from inheriting the throne. The king repealed the Salic Law with the Pragmatic Sanction, allowing one of his daughters to rule.
3. The Independence of the American Colonies (1808-1826)
This process coincided with the reign of Ferdinand VII and helped accelerate the decline of Spain’s economic and political prestige.
3.1 The Reasons for Independence
Several factors contributed to the independence movement. The diffusion of Enlightenment ideas and the principles of freedom and equality played a significant role. The success of the revolt of the British colonies and the independence of the United States also served as an inspiration. Creole discontent with the Spanish authorities, who monopolized political positions and benefited from economic prosperity, was another crucial factor. The Creoles saw Spain as a brake on the American economy, which was already hampered by trade restrictions and heavy tax burdens.
3.2 The End of the American Empire
The outbreak of the War of Independence led to the formation of juntas that soon became power agencies acting outside of Spanish authority. The junta members were Creoles who replaced Spanish officials and refused to accept the authority of the Supreme Central Junta. The major centers of insurrection originated in Venezuela and the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. With the restoration of absolutism in 1814, Spanish troops managed to restore colonial rule. But the insurrection generalized again from 1816. General José de San Martín achieved the independence of Chile. Simón Bolívar founded Gran Colombia. Antonio José de Sucre emancipated Peru and Bolivia. The rebellion led by Agustín de Iturbide achieved the independence of Mexico in 1821. The new American republics faced multiple problems after independence.
4. The Liberal Revolution
4.1 The Carlist War
Upon the death of Ferdinand VII, his heir, Isabella II, was only 3 years old. The most absolutist sectors supported Ferdinand VII’s brother, Don Carlos, for the throne. To defend her daughter’s rights, Maria Cristina, the regent, sought support from the liberals. Thus began a civil war in the form of a dynastic conflict, pitting absolutists (Carlists) against liberals (Isabelinos). The Carlists were defenders of the old regime: absolute monarchy, social prominence of the Catholic Church, preservation of traditional legal systems and forms of land ownership. The Isabelinos were a conglomerate of interests. The bourgeoisie, the urban popular classes, and the peasantry of central and southern Spain joined the Isabelino front. The war lasted 7 years (1833-1840). The major centers of Carlist insurrection were in the Basque Country, Navarre, Catalonia, Aragon, and Valencia. The Convention of Vergara ended the war, but Carlism persisted throughout the 19th century.
4.2 Progressive Reforms
The liberals were divided into two factions: the moderates, supporters of more limited reforms, and the progressives, who wanted to dismantle the entire structure of the old regime. Between 1835 and 1837, the progressives, led by Juan Álvarez Mendizábal, introduced a liberal regime.
4.3 The Regency of Espartero
In 1837, the moderates, supported by Maria Cristina, came to power and tried to turn the revolutionary process into a conservative one. General Baldomero Espartero was appointed regent, but his free-trade measures, which hurt the nascent Spanish industry, and his authoritarianism earned him the opposition of much of the country. Espartero resigned in 1843, and Isabella II was declared of age and crowned queen.
5. The Isabeline Era: Moderate Liberalism (1843-1868)
5.1 The Moderate Decade (1843-1854)
Moderate liberalism consolidated its power. This was a form of liberalism with a conservative and centralist character. A census suffrage was established, with significant intervention by the crown in politics and limitations on freedoms. The military had a huge influence, and the state administration was centralized and authoritarian. Three groups supported this regime: the aristocracy, the conservative bourgeoisie, and the Church. They accepted the liberal order to curb Carlism. Government actions included: the Constitution of 1845, which restricted suffrage and established shared sovereignty; the Concordat with the Holy See in 1851, which declared Catholicism the state religion; the strengthening of civilian and military governments in each province; financial reforms (state taxes); the Penal Code (1851); and the Civil Code (1844).
5.2 The Crisis of the Progressive Biennium and the End of the Isabeline System
In 1854, a military coup supported by progressives and disgruntled moderates triumphed. The Progressive Biennium (1854-1856) restored the principles of the Constitution of 1812 and introduced economic reforms. From 1856 to 1868, there was an alternation in power between moderates and liberals. Colonial wars were waged, and domestic policy was characterized by authoritarian government and repression by the army. Democrats defended universal male suffrage, while republicans advocated for the abolition of the monarchy.