The Crisis of the Ancient Regime: Enlightenment and Revolution
The Ancient Regime in Crisis
The Ancient Regime (AR) was the principal economic, social, and political system in Europe in the 18th century. It was characterized by absolute monarchy, a society based on the privileges of a minority, and an agrarian and manorial economy.
An Agrarian and Manorial Economy
The economy of the AR was mainly rural. Land was entailed and concentrated in the hands of the nobility and the Church. Manorialism, which had replaced feudalism, remained powerful in the countryside. Lords received manorial rents and taxes from peasants and had the power to issue orders and impart justice within their farms. Peasants paid 10% of their harvest to the Church. Agriculture used traditional methods, and most people practiced subsistence farming. Despite agriculture being the predominant activity, the bourgeoisie developed artisan and manufacturing industries.
Society Based on Privileges
Society was divided by traditional law into three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and ordinary people (peasants, the urban working class, and the bourgeoisie). The nobility and clergy had rights and privileges, controlled the army, and did not pay taxes.
A Monarchy by Divine Right
The predominant form of government in Europe was absolute monarchy. The king’s authority came from God. King Louis XIV of France, known as the Sun King, was the perfect example. He issued laws, appointed judges and ministers, administered justice, commanded the army, and directed foreign policy. He was not subjected to any control and did not share his authority with anyone. However, the king’s power was limited by divine law and the fundamental laws of the kingdom, which he had to accept at his coronation.
Factors for Change: The Emerging Bourgeoisie
The bourgeoisie aspired to participate in government. They criticized the privileges of the nobles and clergy and argued that social recognition should be based on individual merit. The peasantry opposed the manorial system and the heavy taxes they had to pay. Workers were increasingly poor because prices rose faster than wages. Enlightenment thinkers began to challenge the ideological foundations of the AR and propose a new social and political model for society. They wanted to end the dominance of the privileged classes. This was the beginning of the road to the revolutions that would end the AR.
Population Growth
Population growth was driven by greater agricultural production, general economic growth, and fewer major epidemics, which resulted in a lower death rate. The growth in Europe’s population led to an increase in demand for goods and services. Agricultural improvements led to increased agricultural production. The protection of manufacturing stimulated production, and the liberalization of trade allowed for its overseas expansion through commercial companies. However, demand was weak due to the poverty of the peasantry. Enlightenment thinkers advocated for land reforms.
The Enlightenment Movement
An intellectual movement known as the Enlightenment challenged the authority of the AR and proposed a new way of organizing society. The bourgeoisie adopted these ideas, which ultimately led to the end of absolutism.
Enlightenment Thinkers
Enlightenment thinkers directly criticized medieval tradition and religious theocentrism. Most of them were deists and rejected the superiority of any one religion. They defended freedom and believed in progress. The philosophes advocated radical changes. They opposed inherited privileges and supported social mobility and personal merit. They opposed mercantilism and disapproved of state regulations, advocating for free trade. In terms of political changes, they proposed the separation of powers and expressed the need for a social contract between the ruler and the individuals. They also defended the idea of voting. The main objectives of Spanish Enlightenment thinkers were economic growth, the reform of society, the improvement of education, and the modernization of culture. Jovellanos criticized the privileges of the AR, condemned the nobility, opposed the Church, and justified land reform. Reforms would lead to better land distribution and an increase in production, trade, and wealth. They defended the need to liberalize the ownership of land and wanted to eliminate the Mesta.
Enlightened Despotism
European monarchs were influenced by the Enlightenment, and some tried to introduce its ideas about progress without giving up their absolute power. They promoted the rationalization of administration, education, and economic reforms. They developed agriculture and industry, facilitated free trade, and promoted manufacturing and trading companies. The idea of enlightened despotism is summarized in the phrase: “All for the people, nothing by the people,” which means acting in favor of the people but keeping absolute power intact.
The Bourbon Monarchy in Spain
The appointment of Philip of Bourbon as his heir resulted in the War of the Spanish Succession because the Austrian branch of the Habsburg also claimed the Spanish throne. Philip V’s supporters won the war, establishing a new dynasty in Spain, the Bourbon one. Before the end of the war, in 1711, Charles inherited the Holy Roman Empire and lost interest in being king of Spain. His European allies saw the need to prevent the possible union of Spain and Austria under one monarch. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), which recognized Philip V as king of Spain. New laws were passed to unify the crowns of Aragon and Castile.
Enlightened Despotism in Spain
The reigns of Philip V and Ferdinand VI were characterized by the centralization of the state. However, Charles III was influenced by enlightened despotism. He ruled as an absolutist king but chose some Enlightenment thinkers to be his advisors. Some of the major reforms by Charles III were the regulation of professions, limiting the Mesta, free movement of goods, and free trade with the Americas. However, the events of the French Revolution frightened Charles IV, who put a stop to all these reforms.