The Crisis of Liberalism and the Second Spanish Republic
1. The Crisis of Liberalism
The Crisis of ’98
In 1895, a new independence movement erupted in Cuba. The United States declared war on Spain following the sinking of the battleship Maine in Havana.
The Spanish defeat meant the loss of its last colonies. This caused frustration within the Spanish political class and pessimism among the intelligentsia.
The Constitutional Rule of Alfonso XIII
The Constitution of 1876 remained in force and maintained a system of alternating turns in power (turnismo), although the leaders of political parties changed. In the Conservative party, Canovas was replaced by Maura, and in the Liberal party, Sagasta was replaced by Canalejas. Leaders influenced by Regenerationism tried to reform political life. Maura wanted to end caciquismo (political bossism) and implemented a policy of decentralization. Canalejas led a liberal and progressive government. Conservative and Liberal parties were becoming less representative of the middle classes. Republicans, the PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party), and unions gained strength, with Pablo Iglesias representing the PSOE and Largo Caballero representing the unions.
2. The Second Spanish Republic
In 1931, municipal elections were held and resulted in a victory for the Republicans in almost all provincial capitals. Republicans viewed this as a definitive triumph.
The Provisional Government and the Constitution of 1931
The new government was composed of parties that had signed the Pact of San Sebastian and was presided over by Niceto Alcalá-Zamora.
The Cortes (parliament) drafted a new constitution, establishing a fully democratic regime in which all parties were represented. Key aspects of the constitution included:
- Recognition of individual liberties
- Universal suffrage
- Separation of church and state
- Decentralized territorial organization
- Importance of social welfare
3. The Biennio Reform (1931-1933)
Reforms
Between 1931 and 1933, Manuel Azaña was Prime Minister and led continuous reform efforts that addressed issues pending from the previous century.
- Land reform aimed to transform the agrarian structure to improve production and the lives of peasants.
- Autonomy was granted to Catalonia.
- Military reform was central.
- Important labor reforms were addressed.
- Education reform was a priority for the Second Republic.
- Civil marriage and divorce were also regulated.
4. Conservative Biennium and Popular Front (1933-1936)
Conservative Biennium (1933-1935)
The center-right won the 1933 elections. Alejandro Lerroux of the Radical Party formed a government, supported by the CEDA (Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right) led by José María Gil-Robles. The new government halted the reforms undertaken by the previous government and granted amnesty to coup plotters.
- The Asturias Revolution took place, where labor organizations occupied the coal basin. Francisco Franco was sent by the government to crush the revolt.
- In Catalonia, the autonomous government joined the insurrection, and Lluís Companys proclaimed the Catalan Republic within the Spanish Republic.
Popular Front (1936)
The left-wing united in the Popular Front, composed of socialists, communists, and other parties. They won the 1936 elections against the right-wing, including extremist leaders. The Popular Front’s victory was narrow. The new government resumed the policy of reforms and released prisoners from the Asturias Revolution.
5. Outbreak of the Civil War
The Coup and the Division of Spain
The army, led by right-wing generals, revolted in Africa and moved to the Peninsula. The coup, supported by the Church, was backed by a part of the army and by Carlist groups.
- Nationalist (Rebel) Side: Old and New Castile, Galicia, Cáceres, the western part of Andalusia, Navarre, the Balearic and Canary Islands. The Junta de Defensa Nacional (National Defense Board) was formed, with Franco eventually consolidating power over all political forces supporting the uprising.
- Republican Side: Part of Aragon, northern Spain (except Navarre), Catalonia, the Levante region, Madrid, and most of Andalusia. Unions organized militias and created the Popular Army.
Internationalization of the Conflict
The war became a focal point in Europe. Public opinion in many countries was divided between supporters of the legitimate government of the Republic and those who supported the coup. Britain and France convened a conference where they signed a Non-Intervention Agreement to avoid conflict with other countries.
- The Republic received help from the USSR, which was paid for with the gold reserves of the Bank of Spain.
- The rebels received arms and soldiers from Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany in exchange for mining concessions.
6. Evolution of the War
Campaign Around Madrid
With the help of Italian and German planes, Moroccan troops, who were the most prepared of the Spanish army, advanced. The capture of the capital became the main objective of the insurgents.
Northern Front
Franco’s troops moved towards the northern front with the intention of taking the Cantabrian areas. Republicans counterattacked at Brunete and Belchite. The fall of the north was a severe blow to the Republicans.
Outcome of the War
The Republican territory became fragmented. Republican troops launched an offensive across the Ebro River to try to cut off the Francoist army’s rearguard. This led to the Battle of the Ebro, a major defeat for the Republicans. The Civil War ended in 1939 with a Nationalist victory. It caused the loss of nearly half a million lives, the exile of many Spaniards, and the devastation of the country.