The Crisis of Democracy and the Rise of Totalitarianism
The Context of the Crisis of Democracies
After the First World War, democracy consolidated in Western and Nordic Europe and extended to new states in Central and Eastern Europe. The expansion of individual rights, the extension of universal male suffrage, and in some cases female suffrage, led to the introduction of multiparty parliamentary democracy. By 1920-1921, all states except Russia and Hungary were democracies or parliamentary systems.
However, democratic governments were unable to resolve the serious political, social, and economic issues that plagued interwar Europe. Large sections of the population believed that liberal parliamentary democracy represented an outdated political system, incapable of coping with the dramatic problems of the postwar era. Many defended the need for strong, authoritarian leadership to face the situation.
Authoritarian governments sought to justify their existence by claiming they were necessary to avoid the revolutionary contagion following the implementation of a Communist regime in Russia and the outbreak of Communist revolutions in Hungary and Bavaria, alongside waves of worker claims throughout Western Europe between 1919 and 1920.
The terrible effects of the crisis—specifically the increase in unemployment and social unrest—translated into deep mistrust of rulers and the radicalization of political positions. The main liberal values faced a dramatic decline among the middle classes. The bourgeoisie expected a strong state to impose discipline and national cohesion against the crisis, while many in the lower classes saw a new revolution as the solution to their problems. Fascism and Nazism emerged, defending aggressive nationalism, exaltation of the state, and totalitarian single-party systems as solutions.
The Fascist Ideology
Fascism advocated for the establishment of a totalitarian state capable of controlling all spheres of life, including politics, the economy, and society. It rejected the principles of liberalism, equality, individual rights, and the separation of powers.
Core Pillars of Fascist Doctrine:
- Dictatorial One-Party System: Based on the principle of leadership, relying on a charismatic head with absolute power and a cult of personality.
- Third Way: Fascism posed an alternative to both capitalism and Marxist socialism, aiming to end class conflict and attract middle classes threatened by economic instability.
- Aggressive Nationalism: A central tenet that often evolved into racism and antisemitism, particularly in Nazism, which promoted the superiority of the Aryan race and the right to subjugate “inferior” races.
- Irrationalism: Rejection of rationalism and materialism in favor of fanaticism, intolerance, and blind obedience.
- Political Violence: The use of force against political opponents.
- Gender Roles: Exaltation of masculine principles, relegating women to domestic tasks and motherhood. All policies were composed and directed by men.