The Crisis of 98: The Fall of the Spanish Empire
The Fall of the Spanish Empire and the Crisis of 98
The crisis of 98 represents the beginning of the crisis within the system of the Restoration. While Europe enjoyed a long period of peace and economic development, a backward and internationally isolated Spain was unable to contain the irresistible thrust of U.S. imperialism. As a result of the loss of our last remaining colonies, Spain faced one of the most serious crises of conscience in its history: the crisis of 98.
A) Causes of Conflict
The Cuban question resurfaced in 1895 with an insurrection in Cuba under the so-called “Baire cry.” Thus began the uprising that would lead to independence in 1898. Simultaneously, an independence movement was also brewing in the Philippines. The causes that led to this situation were the following:
- The failure of Spain to fulfill the agreements made in the Convention of Zanjón (1878) caused unrest among Cubans due to the political, economic, financial, and taxation policies imposed on the island.
- Spain’s economic inability to absorb the production of sugar and other Cuban products, and to provide the island with manufacturing opportunities.
- The Cubans believed that Spain’s economic backwardness relative to other powers, like the United States, was hindering the development of the island.
- The Spanish government had not addressed the problem effectively, failing to grant autonomous status in time to satisfy Cuban aspirations.
- Cuban and Filipino nationalism grew, backed by U.S. interests and fueled by the harsh repression of the Spanish government.
B) The War of Cuba (1895-1898)
The Cuban uprising was led by José Martí, who, supported by peasants, revolted in 1895 in the eastern part of the island. After an initial attempt at reconciliation failed, the Spanish government and army pursued a tactic of war, creating fortified lines and destroying buildings.
The continuation of military operations and their harshness caused protests from the United States. The U.S. offered to mediate in the Spanish-Cuban conflict and called for granting broad autonomy to the island. Spain rejected the offer but promised that after the war, Cuba would be given relative political autonomy.
The U.S. president protested to the Spanish government for the harsh actions of the Spanish military and even proposed to Queen María Cristina that the U.S. buy the island for $300 million. Both the Queen and the Spanish government categorically opposed the idea because, besides the dishonor, it could mean the fall of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic.
However, the U.S. did not give up its goals. Taking advantage of the accidental bombing of the battleship Maine (an American warship anchored in the port of Havana) on April 25, 1898, the U.S. declared war on Spain and demanded Spain relinquish sovereignty over Cuba.
C) The War Against America (1898)
When war broke out, Spain experienced days of genuine patriotic enthusiasm, encouraged by the government and the press. The population was led to believe in the possibility of winning the war against the United States despite its industrial potential. In reality, Spain could not win nor was it prepared to face the Americans.
The war took place in two widely separated theaters: the Pacific (Philippines) and the Atlantic (Cuba and Puerto Rico).
The first battle between the Spanish and Americans occurred in the waters of the Pacific. The inequality of the naval forces of the contenders was evident, as the ships of the Spanish fleet had wooden hulls and were unprotected against the American cruisers. The naval battle of Cavite lasted barely three hours. On May 1st, the Spanish fleet was annihilated by the U.S. in Manila Bay.
In the Atlantic, the Spanish fleet operating in the Canary Islands was ordered to transfer to the Caribbean to protect Puerto Rico and Cuba. However, while refueling coal in Santiago de Cuba, the fleet was blockaded by the U.S. When, on July 3rd, the Spanish fleet was forced to leave the port, it was completely destroyed. Soon after, U.S. troops entered Santiago de Cuba, San Juan, Puerto Rico, and Manila. The war was over.
E) The Impact of the Disaster: The Crisis of 98
By the Treaty of Paris, Spain lost the remnants of its colonial empire, forged four centuries earlier, just as European powers conquered the world. The impact of the event, called “The Disaster,” plunged the Spanish people into a deep crisis of conscience that affected all of Spanish society.
The Restoration regime was greatly affected by the war in Cuba and its serious political and social consequences. The resolution of the conflict provoked resentment from the military towards the political class because the Army believed it had been used and then abandoned by the government, causing it to lose a war that politicians were to blame for.
A militaristic sentiment grew among the populace. The soldiers for the war in Cuba were recruited from among the poorest, as young people of the upper classes avoided going to war by paying a fee. This circumstance meant that the human losses—killed, wounded, and maimed—were primarily from the lower classes. As the labor movement campaigned against this unfair recruitment, it caused antipathy from the military toward the people and labor organizations.
The best expression of this crisis was the emergence of a vigorous intellectual movement, Regenerationism, which rejected the political and social system of the Restoration, considering it a blight on the progress of Spain. Among its representatives were Miguel de Unamuno, Joaquín Costa, and Angel Ganivet.
Regenerationism had a literary side, the Generation of 98, which gave impetus to intellectual and political life in the early decades of the twentieth century. This Generation of 98, composed of writers such as Unamuno, Pío Baroja, Azorín, Ramiro de Maeztu, Jacinto Benavente, and Antonio Machado, would endorse this regeneration effort and criticize the evils and consequences of the oligarchy and despotism.
Therefore, after the disaster of 98, Spain entered the new century with great aspirations for regeneration. However, different ways of understanding this process constantly divided the country, ultimately leading to the Civil War of 1936-1939.