The Congress of Vienna and the European Order
The Congress of Vienna and the New European Order
After Napoleon’s defeat, representatives of the European monarchies met at a conference in Vienna in 1815. The Congress of Vienna laid the foundations for the restoration of territories and European policies. They agreed on a series of resolutions that would shape the future of European politics.
Territorial Changes and Political Resolutions
- The Austrian Empire gained strong influence over the Italian peninsula, incorporating the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia in the north. Austria also placed rulers in Parma, Modena, and Tuscany and annexed Tyrol and Adriatic areas.
- The Bourbon family was restored to the throne of the Two Sicilies.
- The existence of the Papal States was confirmed.
- Germany established a Germanic Confederation consisting of 41 federal states (kingdoms, duchies, free cities). The only common organ was a permanent assembly (Diet) with limited power.
- France and Britain’s naval power ensured their dominance of the seas.
The Holy Alliance and the New European Order
The governments established a new European political order and agreed to meet periodically. The Russian Tsar Alexander I, the Emperor of Austria Franz I, and King Frederick William III of Prussia signed the Holy Alliance in Paris. They pledged to base their political conduct on the principles of the Christian religion.
The Holy Alliance aimed to establish the right of any country to intervene in another where revolutionary threats emerged. This security system was called the Metternich system, named after the Austrian Prime Minister.
Political Developments in Europe
- In France, social and political movements began to challenge the restored order.
- In Britain, a parliamentary system functioned where the monarch’s power was subject to Parliament.
- In Prussia, a series of “reforms from above” took place: serfdom was abolished, guilds and state monopolies were ended, and a modern tax system was organized.
- In Russia, the Tsar remained a counter-revolutionary force and did nothing to improve the peasants’ lives.
Revolutionary Movements of 1820
The first revolutionary wave took place in the Mediterranean: Spain, Naples, and Greece.
In Spain, the return of the old regime under Ferdinand VII faced difficulties. Troops commanded by Rafael del Riego revolted in 1820, forcing Ferdinand VII to swear to the Constitution of Cádiz.
Members of the Holy Alliance were alarmed by the potential spread of revolution to other countries.
Congress of Verona and Intervention in Spain
The Congress of Verona commissioned the French army to intervene in Spain. The “Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis” crossed the border and ended the liberal triennium.
Revolution of 1830
Revolutions spread across France, Belgium, Poland, Italy, and Germany.
- In France, Charles X clashed with Parliament, suspended press freedom, and triggered an uprising in Paris. Louis Philippe of Orléans was appointed king.
- In Brussels, a revolt against Dutch rule led to the independence of Belgium.
- In Poland, a liberal and nationalist uprising was suppressed by Russian troops.
- Uprisings also occurred in Modena, Parma, and Bologna.
- In Spain, the death of Ferdinand VII triggered a Carlist civil war between liberals and supporters of his daughter, Isabella II.
The map of Europe was altered by the independence of Belgium. Liberalism gained ground in Western Europe.
German and Italian Unification
The Rise of Nationalism
The creation of national states was a slow process that began in the era of liberal revolutions. In the 19th century, the term “nation” acquired a political dimension. Many began to demand that state boundaries coincide with ethnic, linguistic, and historical boundaries. Nationalist ideologies drove both the unification of divided peoples and the disintegration of empires that encompassed diverse nationalities.
Italian Unification
Initial Situation: A Mosaic of States
The Italian peninsula was divided into several states in the 19th century. Parts of Italy were even under foreign rule. The existence of a common language formed the basis for calls for unity. Nationalist revolts occurred during the first half of the century but were unsuccessful. Finally, the unification initiative came from the Kingdom of Piedmont, led by its Prime Minister Cavour, who sought support from the French Emperor Napoleon III.
Unification Process
In 1859, the Franco-Piedmontese army defeated the Austrians at Magenta and Solferino. After peace was achieved in the north, the Republican Garibaldi led a volunteer army to conquer the southern states. Piedmontese troops then occupied central Italy to prevent Garibaldi from entering Rome. In 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed, with Victor Emmanuel II, King of Piedmont, as its first king. Only Venice and the Papal States remained outside the kingdom, joining in 1866 and 1870, respectively.
German Unification
The Progressive Affirmation of Prussia
In 1815, the German territory was divided into 39 states, grouped under the Germanic Confederation presided over by Austria. Prussia was the most powerful state and became the focus of unification efforts. In 1834, Prussia organized a customs union that excluded Austria, demonstrating its growing influence.
The Birth of a Great Power
From 1862, Prussian King Wilhelm I and Chancellor Bismarck accelerated the unification process through military means. After defeating Austria at the Battle of Sadowa in 1866, Prussia created the North German Confederation. In 1870, following victory over France at the Battle of Sedan, the southern German states joined the Confederation. In 1871, the German Empire, the Second Reich, was born, with Wilhelm I as its Emperor. Germany became a great power.