The Cold War: Phases, Conflicts, and Global Impacts
The Cold War
The Phases of the Cold War
Containment (1947-1953)
In March 1947, US President Harry S. Truman asked Congress to support the Greek Government against the communists in the Greek Civil War. Truman justified the intervention on the grounds that American national security depended on the containment of communism. This became known as Containment or the Truman Doctrine.
That year, the USA came up with the European Recovery Programme for Europe, nicknamed the Marshall Plan, to get the economy going again and to roll back communism.
Stalin set up the Communist Information Bureau (Cominform). The members of the Eastern Bloc were forbidden from applying for Marshall aid.
Conflicts
The Greek Civil War (1946-1949). This was the first intervention resulting from the Truman Doctrine.
Korean War (1950-1953). At the end of World War II, North Korea and South Korea were separated near the 38th parallel. On 25 June 1950, the troops from communist North Korea crossed into South Korea. The Soviets supported the North Korean Government, and the USA and the UN supported the South Korean Government. Today, the border is still a place of international tension.
Peaceful Coexistence (1953-1960)
In 1953, Joseph Stalin died, and Nikita Khrushchev came to power in the Soviet Union.
During this period, the leaders of the USSR, the USA, UK, and France met at the Geneva Conference in 1955 to discuss ending the Cold War. In 1959, Khrushchev became the first Soviet leader to visit the USA.
Conflicts
Vietnam War (1955-1975). After World War II, Vietnam was divided in two: North and South. An armed communist group from North Vietnam, the Vietcong, invaded the South and attacked American bases. The USA sent military aid to the South. The war ended in 1975 when American troops withdrew, and Vietnam was unified under a communist regime. The war was very unpopular in the USA.
Hungarian Uprising (1956). In October, students and workers marched into the city peacefully when Nagy said they wanted to leave the Warsaw Pact. Tanks were brought in by the Soviet Union to put down the uprising on 4 November. The West did nothing to help the Hungarians. This was the only armed conflict that happened on European land.
Suez Crisis (1956). The Egyptian President, Nasser, nationalized the Suez Canal. Great Britain, France, and Israel attacked Egypt. However, the USA made them stop to avoid a conflict with the USSR, which gave aid to Egypt.
End of the Peaceful Coexistence (1960-1962)
Relations became tense again in 1960 when the Soviets shot down an American U-2 spy plane over the Soviet Union. Tensions elevated further in 1962 when the USA found missile bases in Cuba. A nuclear war almost broke out.
Conflicts
U-2 Spy Plane Incident (1960). An American spy plane was shot out of the sky as it flew over the Soviet Union. It marked the end of peaceful coexistence.
Berlin Wall (1961). Faced with large numbers of people moving from East Germany to West Berlin for economic reasons, on 13 August, the Soviets decided to stop this movement by building a wall around Berlin.
Bay of Pigs Invasion, Cuba (1961). On 17 April, there was an attempt to take Fidel Castro out of power. An army of Cuban exiles opposed to Castro landed at the Bay of Pigs. The invasion was organized and financed by the CIA. The plan was a complete failure, and within a day, it was all over.
Détente (1962-1979)
Tensions eased between the two superpowers, and there was more cooperation in trade. This became known as détente.
In 1972 and 1979, the two Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty agreements, which limited the number of nuclear missiles produced, were signed.
Conflicts
Cuban Missile Crisis (1962). The USA found Soviet missile sites in Cuba, which were close to the American coast. President Kennedy ordered a naval blockade of Cuba. After massive tension, Khrushchev ordered the missile bases in Cuba to be removed. Kennedy had the missile bases in Turkey removed as well.
Freeze in Relations (1979-1986)
When Jimmy Carter became president of the USA, he demanded more human rights in the USSR. When the USSR invaded Afghanistan, détente ended.
The End of the Cold War (1991)
The Cold War ended with the fall of the communist bloc.
The End of the Cold War and the USSR
Eastern Bloc Countries
After World War II, the USSR imposed a political system on Eastern Europe. These countries were known as people’s democracies. In theory, they were independent, but they were actually under the domination of the Soviet Union. They shared common elements:
- Strict control of Moscow: The USSR dictated many of the policies these countries implemented and directed their economies.
- Dictatorial rule: The governments were run by state communist parties.
- Domestic repression of the people: This was achieved through the use of secret services and political police.
- Planned economy: This always operated within the Soviet orbit.
- Basic social services: These were provided by the government and included such things as housing, healthcare, and education. Their quality diminished as the system grew more inefficient. This situation gave rise to several protest movements against the power of Moscow.
Perestroika and Glasnost
In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev was appointed general secretary of the Soviet Communist Party. By this time, the Soviet economy had been weakened by the high cost of the Cold War, the war in Afghanistan, and the space race. There was little investment in industry or agriculture, and both needed modernization. As a result, production decreased, causing food shortages.
Gorbachev introduced political and economic reforms to combat these problems. His program was based on two key principles:
- Perestroika: The system became more democratic, while still adhering to the basic tenets of communism. Other parties were allowed to participate in some elections. A controlled market economy was introduced, helping create co-operatives and small private companies.
- Glasnost: People were allowed to openly discuss political and social issues. This included criticism of the regime. Censorship of the press was reduced, and freedom of speech and information were extended. This resulted in greater transparency.
The Decline of Communism
The economic decline of the Soviet Union brought widespread dissatisfaction as people were unhappy with the differences between their standard of living and that of the Western Bloc countries.
Circumstances:
- Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster: A serious accident took place in Chernobyl in April 1986 due to poor design and inadequately trained personnel. The result was a steam explosion and fires sending radioactive materials into the atmosphere, causing a major environmental and human disaster.
- Fall of the Berlin Wall: On 9 November 1989, East German officials announced that citizens could cross the border. Crowds of East Berliners were soon pouring through checkpoints along the wall. They began tearing down parts of the wall.
- Nationalist Movements: The democratization that came about because of perestroika allowed for the expression of nationalist feelings. In 1990, Gorbachev eliminated the one-party system, and many independent parties came to power. Lithuania became independent almost immediately, being quickly followed by Estonia and Latvia.
The End of the USSR
In August 1991, conservative members of the Communist Party staged a failed coup d’état, yet Gorbachev’s power was weakened. The CPSU was banned on 29 August. In December, Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia declared their independence, then the rest of the republics followed suit (except Georgia). Gorbachev resigned on 25 December, ending the USSR.
USA and Western Europe: End of the Cold War
Western Europe
- In the 1950s and 60s, the capitalist economy greatly grew, leading to an expansion of the welfare state in many Western countries. Living standards increased (healthcare, education, etc.).
- The 70s brought a big economic recession because of the 1973 oil crisis. It started when Arab petrol exporting countries reduced the amount of oil they exported, leading to a decline in productivity and an increase in the cost of living.
- The welfare state was also weakened, and a new model of economic liberalism was implemented.
- In the 1980s, Ronald Reagan (US) and Margaret Thatcher (GB) promoted the free market.
- In the 1970s, the dictatorships in Greece, Portugal, and Spain fell, becoming democratic states.
The United States
Reagan was succeeded by his vice-president, George H.W. Bush, whose term was mainly marked by economic recession due to the crisis. Democrat Bill Clinton was then elected. Both presidents reasserted American dominance on the international scene.
- First Gulf War: In 1991, Bush organized a broad international coalition in response to Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait. Many Arab countries took part, and the operation was sanctioned by the Soviet Union.
- Middle East Peace Process: International recognition of American power allowed the US to head up initiatives like the Middle East Peace Process.
- Economic Growth: Clinton was able to overcome the crisis and eliminate the deficit. The US economy experienced a boom based on the IT and telecommunications revolutions.
Latin America in the 20th Century
Constraints on Development
Spain and Portugal’s American empires had disappeared by the 19th century. Most Latin American countries did not achieve full sovereignty until the 20th century due to social and economic challenges and unstable governments.
Reasons:
- Rapid population growth: Accompanied by migration to cities and emigration to Europe and the US.
- Social inequality: A minority made up of the descendants of Europeans held considerably greater social and economic power than the large indigenous or mixed population. The middle class had a stronger presence in countries with large European immigrant populations, such as Argentina and Chile.
- Weak economies: There was little industrial development, and agriculture still played a very important role. National economies were extremely dependent on foreign capital and multinationals.
- Dollar diplomacy: The policies of the Monroe Doctrine were carried into the 20th century. This meant significant American interference in the economic and political affairs of countries where it had a strategic interest.
The Mexican Revolution (1910-1920)
Mexico was ruled by Porfirio Díaz, a dictator who had held power for over 30 years.
One of the issues that sparked the revolution was the reforms that took away land from the peasants who had worked it for generations, leaving them unable to survive. Popular leaders like Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata used strategies that included guerrilla warfare to win the conflict.
The success of the Revolution led to the establishment of a democracy controlled by the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). The PRI considered itself the successor of the revolution, but its subsequent history was somewhat uneven. The party governed the country for 71 years, until 2000.
Globalization and State Crises
Globalization of Politics
Globalization is the process of integration and interaction among different societies around the world. From a political point of view, this process means that national states have given up at least some of their autonomy to other supranational entities.
- UN: The United Nations is the largest international organization, with over 190 member states. It facilitates international cooperation in areas such as international law, peace, social and economic development, and human rights. However, in recent conflicts, it has not managed to impose its authority on all states.
- WB and IMF: The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund are economic and monetary institutions. Their objective is to improve the living standards in member countries. However, criticism of these institutions suggests that they only benefit the growth of the most powerful countries.
- EU: The European Union is an economic and political association made up of 28 countries. Many of the policies of the member states are led by the Union’s institutions. However, in recent years, certain groups have called for the withdrawal of some countries from the organization.
- NGOs: Non-governmental organizations have humanitarian functions that were previously carried out by the state. Unfortunately, at times, they can’t count on having the necessary funds to carry out their projects, which is why they constantly have to find sponsors.
The Failure of the State
Many states have been in crisis in recent years due to a series of processes:
- Separatist movements: These movements question the borders of states. It is a common phenomenon in Africa and Asia but has also happened in countries that emerged from the break-up of the Soviet Bloc and in Europe.
- Failed states: Some states can’t guarantee either the safety or the well-being of their citizens. Their populations live in a continuous state of violence and civil war, under the power of military chiefs or warlords.
- Mafia organizations: Mafia organizations use tax havens, located in countries that attract a lot of undeclared money. Tax havens take legitimate income, that would have been obtained in the form of taxes, away from states.
Conflicts in Africa
Demographic Explosion
Africa has the fastest-growing population in the world. In 1900, the population of Europe was treble that of Africa. Now there are approximately the same, but predictions for 2050 show that there will be three times more Africans than Europeans.
In spite of the high rates of infant mortality caused by epidemics or outbreaks of lethal diseases, this demographic explosion has been caused by a decrease in mortality.
The birth rate continues to be very high. They have the highest fertility rate, with more than six children per woman, while in Western countries, it is less than two.
This is why the African population is the youngest on the planet. In many African countries, under 15s make up almost one-third of the total population. States can’t subsidize the education of so many young people, and their economies are unable to guarantee access to the labor market. Many have to emigrate to Europe as they have no hope of finding work or decent living conditions; others flee because of wars or dictatorships.
Arab Spring and Current Problems
From 2010, a series of protest marches that began in Tunisia spread over a large part of the Arab world.
Popular opposition to dictatorships and corrupt governments managed to overthrow the regimes in Tunisia and Egypt and produce a civil war in Libya, which brought the dictatorship of Colonel Gaddafi to an end. The transition to democratic regimes failed everywhere, except for Tunisia.
A large part of the Sahara and Sahel has become a highly unstable zone, where border divisions are not respected and in which fundamentalist groups operate. This caused a civil war in Mali and threatens the coexistence of religions in countries as far south as Nigeria.
The USA from the Cold War
Despite the rise of China and the return of Russia to the international scene the USA continues to be the first global power. PHASES:
1.Euphoria: the issue is winning position after the collapse of the USSR it’s Cold War enemy.
2.Presidency of George W Bush: the atmosphere of confidence in optimism came to an end with the terrorist attacks on 11 September 2001 in New York and Washington in which Saudis had taken part. Furthermore, the attack was led by Osama bin Laden who had been trained and supported by the USA in the Afghan war against the Soviets. President Bush used the panic unleashed by the attacks to call for war against terrorism with the aim of invading Afghanistan and Iraq.
3.Mortgage crisis: the increase in neoliberal policies which were driven by President Bush the lack of economic legislation and the provision of higher risk mortgages led to a mortgage crisis and bankruptcy of some banks in 2008 which caused a global economic crisis
4.Obama presidency: from 2009 and the presidency Barack Obama a more democratic. Began which was marked by the attempts to introduce a public system for health insurance. The policy of stimulating the economy which was employed contrasted with the economic austerity implemented in the European Union and managed to turn the country’s economy growth around, but it did not reduce inequality.
5.Presidency of Donald Trump: in November 2016 the businessman Donald Trump beat Hillary Clinton to the presidency. Trump’s ultra-conservative program has led to protests in some sectors of society.