The Christian Resistance and Taifa Kingdoms in Medieval Spain
The First Centers of Christian Resistance
The first kingdom that emerged in the Cantabrian Mountains was the Kingdom of Asturias. A local chief named Pelayo led a revolt that defeated the Muslims near the Cave of Covadonga. Pelayo’s successors focused on consolidating the kingdom and conquering new territories. During the reign of Alfonso II (791-842), the court moved to Oviedo, established relations with Charlemagne, King of the Franks, and restored Visigothic legislation and the local Catholic Church.
Another major center of resistance to Islam was the Kingdom of the Franks. In 778, Charlemagne undertook a military expedition to the Ebro Valley, but failed to take Zaragoza. The Kingdom of Navarra, with its capital in Pamplona, rebelled against the Emirate of Cordoba in 799 and established alliances with other Christian kingdoms and principalities, including Asturias, halting Muslim attacks for a time.
The Kingdom of Aragon emerged in the central Pyrenees counties, located in the high valleys of the Pyrenees. Another focal point was the Catalan counties. A local noble, Wilfred I, Count of Barcelona, gained control over the region. After his death, his heirs divided the territories. The counties, under the hegemony of Barcelona, gradually became independent of the Frankish kingdom. The fall of the Carolingian dynasty served as a pretext for the Count of Barcelona, Borrell II, to achieve the final emancipation from the Franks in 988.
Models of Resettlement and Social Organization of the Christian Kingdoms
From the eleventh century onward, Christian Europe experienced a transformation characterized by population growth, economic development, and social dynamism. The Christian kingdoms had a large Muslim and Jewish population. The instruments used for the colonization of conquered lands were:
- Privileges and Charters: These aimed to attract new settlers. Examples include the Cartas Pueblas, local charters, and letters of franchise.
- Capitulations: These were agreements with the subject population (Muslims, Jews, Mozarabs). They encouraged the departure of wealthy Muslims, allowing them to sell their properties and move. The less affluent were forced to live in their own neighborhoods (Moorish quarters) or work as servants in the fields.
- Repartimiento: This was the distribution of goods and land among the conquerors. Mudejar revolts led to harsher treatment, with Muslims being converted into serfs or expelled. In the Balearic Islands and Valencia, irrigation systems were respected.
Transformation of Society:
- Population growth and expansion of cultivated land.
- Generalization of new agricultural techniques.
- Large herds belonging to secular and ecclesiastical lords practiced transhumance.
- Modest growth of cities due to the incorporation of former Muslim cities.
- The pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela (Camino de Santiago) encouraged the emergence of cities that housed priests, warriors, artisans, and merchants.
- Revitalization of trade facilitated by the Camino de Santiago, urban growth, and the recovery of parias (tributes).
- Increase in power and land ownership in the hands of the warrior nobility, while the properties and freedoms of the rural population decreased.
The Taifa Kingdoms
In 1031, the era of the Taifa Kingdoms began, which can be divided into three phases: the First Taifa (11th century), the Second Taifa (12th century), and the Third Taifa (13th century).
The First Taifa:
- Andalusian Taifas: Controlled by local elites (the three border marches, Seville, and Cordoba).
- Berber Taifas: Created by newcomers to the Iberian Peninsula, located around the Strait of Gibraltar.
- Slave Taifas: Ruled by slaves, such as those in the Levant.
The cultural, artistic, and scientific achievements of the first Taifa period were significant. However, due to their military weakness and political instability, the Taifas had to pay tributes (parias) to the Christian kingdoms. To contain the Christian advance, the ruler Al-Mutamid of Seville requested help from the Almoravids, a Berber people from North Africa. They conquered all the Taifa kingdoms between the 1090s and 1110, reuniting Al-Andalus.
The Almoravid Empire presented itself as the restorer of traditional and orthodox Islam and practiced jihad against the Christians. However, they lost Zaragoza in 1118, were forced to raise taxes, and their zeal in enforcing Islamic orthodoxy diminished their popularity. They were attacked by another Berber religious movement, the Almohads, leading to the emergence of the Second Taifa (1145-1147).
The Second Taifa: The leader of the Almohads was appointed caliph. It took them time to supplant the Almoravids and subdue the Iberian Peninsula. They established their capital in Seville. They were unable to halt the Christian advance and suffered a defeat at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212), which marked the end of the Almohad Caliphate in Al-Andalus.
The Third Taifa: During the 13th century, the Taifas were gradually conquered by the kings of Castile and Aragon. Other groups, such as the Benimerines (also Berbers), attempted to invade the peninsula. The only surviving successor state of Al-Andalus was the Kingdom of Granada, which lasted until 1492. It was a wealthy realm with a high population density, inheriting the cultural legacy of the Taifa period and reaching great intellectual and artistic heights.
In 1482, Castile launched a military campaign against Granada. Over ten years, Muslim cities fell one after another.