The Causes and Consequences of World War I

Posted on May 13, 2024 in History

The Causes of the First World War

Long-Term Causes (1870-1907)

• Armed Peace (from 1890 onwards): European countries increased their investment to produce more weapons.
• German-French Nationalist Rivalry (from 1870 onwards): French resentment against Germany because France was defeated in 1870 (French-Prussian War) and Germany annexed industrial regions of Alsace-Lorraine.
• German-British Nationalist Rivalry (from 1890 onwards): Competition between the two most industrialized countries in Europe (the expansion of the German navy threatened the British naval dominance).
• Colonial Tensions in Africa (from 1905): Germany supported the Moroccan authorities against France. Finally, France and Spain obtained both colonial protectorates in Morocco, but France ceded parts of Cameroon to Germany (French-German tensions increased).
• Formation of Two Opposing Military Blocs:
  • Triple Alliance: Germany, Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Italy (1882)
  • Triple Entente: France, United Kingdom (1904), and Russia (1907)

Short-Term Causes (1908-1914)

• Austro-Hungarian Empire Annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina (1908): Serbian nationalist resentment against Austria (Serbia wanted to unify all Slavic peoples in the Balkans; Austria opposed it).
• Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913: Serbia and other Slavic countries expanded their territories (meanwhile, the Ottoman Empire lost those territories). Russia supported the expansion of Serbia (Austria opposed it).
• Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (heir of Austro-Hungarian Empire), 28th June 1914: He was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist. Austria declared an ultimatum to Serbia to investigate it.

The First World War

In June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, was assassinated in Bosnia-Herzegovina. The assassin was a Bosnian student with links to a Serbian nationalist group.

Austria believed that Serbia was responsible for the attack. It made a series of demands, including a thorough investigation. Serbia’s refusal resulted in Austria-Hungary declaring war on the country on 28 July. European powers had to respond in accordance with their alliances. Russia intervened to protect Serbia and declared war on Austria-Hungary, Germany declared war on Russia and France, and the UK declared war on Germany and Austria-Hungary. Countries on the side of the Triple Alliance became known as the Central Powers. Countries on the side of the Triple Entente became known as the Allied Powers.

The Western Front

The war began on the Western Front with the execution of Germany’s Schlieffen Plan: to invade and defeat France in six weeks. However, strong French resistance at the First Battle of the Marne forced the Germans to retreat, and deadly trench warfare began.

Trench Warfare

The development of new weapons, such as machine guns, made it impossible for armies to advance across open fields. The war on the Western Front was therefore fought on a virtually fixed front line which stretched from the North Sea down to Switzerland. Two examples are the Battle of Verdun and the Battle of the Somme.

This led to trench warfare: a terrible form of military combat in which opposing sides fought each other from fortified excavations dug into the ground.

Trench warfare was a devastating strategy. Some of the bloodiest battles, such as the Battle of Verdun and the Battle of the Somme, were fought between enemy trenches. Towards the end of 1914, Italy entered the war, but in 1915 it changed sides and allied with the Triple Entente countries.

The war was different on the Eastern Front. Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire joined the conflict with the Central Powers and tipped the balance in their favor. Along with other important victories, Serbia fell to Austria-Hungary. By 1917, Russia was exhausted.

The War at Sea

The war at sea was mainly fought between Germany and the United Kingdom. Both countries tried to maintain trade routes with their own colonies while blocking routes to enemy colonies. The latter experienced hunger and economic ruin as a consequence.

There were several major conflicts, the most important of which was the 1916 Battle of Jutland. New, modern battleships and aircraft carriers were used in these battles. The virtually undetectable German U-boats played an important role too.

In 1915, a German U-boat sank the RMS Lusitania. More than a thousand people were killed in the sinking of this passenger ship, including 128 people from the United States (US). The sinking played a major role in the Allied Powers gaining US support in the war.

1917: A Turning Point

1917 was a decisive year for the war. It was the year that the US joined the conflict on the side of the Allied Powers. This was because of the dangers posed by German U-boat activities and the discovery of a telegram sent by the German government to the Mexican government, in which it proposed an alliance against the US. In addition, by 1917, countries participating in the war were running out of resources. Furthermore, populations back home began questioning the war. Desertion and mutinies among soldiers were common, along with civilian protests. In Russia, increasing war casualties and famine triggered a revolution. Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and withdrew from the war. With a reduced war on the Eastern Front, Germany focused on the Western Front with a second offensive in the Marne River Valley. It concentrated all of the soldiers from the Eastern Front there before US troops arrived. Hungry and exhausted, the German troops were defeated in the Second Battle of the Marne.

The End of the War

In 1918, British, French, and Italian troops defeated the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire, which both signed armistices. On the Western Front, the German army lost the Second Battle of the Somme. Uprisings took place among soldiers, and a revolution of workers began in Berlin. Emperor Wilhelm II abdicated and left the country. The revolution was suppressed, and a democratic parliamentary republic was established in Germany. Germany signed the Armistice on 11 November 1918.

In 1919, the Allied Powers met at the Paris Peace Conference (1919-1920) to discuss the conditions of peace.

A Soldier’s Life on the Front

The other face of the First World War, behind the battles fought, the countries involved, and the statistics of casualties published, was trench warfare. For many, this was a daily reality that meant nothing but suffering and destruction. Thousands of young men were recruited and sent to the front. They were the key figures of the war. Their experiences in the trenches were terrible and left their mark on an entire generation.

Human Suffering

Significant technological advancements of the 19th century, particularly those of the Second Industrial Revolution, meant that more powerful and destructive weapons could be manufactured and used in the war.

Artillery, Bombs, and Gas

Powerful cannons were manufactured alongside machine guns, and the first tanks and fighter planes appeared. Poisonous gas was also used, which spread terror among the soldiers. The use of new weapons led to a greater number of casualties than in previous wars.

The amount of shells is incredible, 80,000 shells in just a few hours, over an area of 1,000 meters wide by 400 meters long. We ask ourselves if any human beings have fought and survived a similar hell, in which no space remains unaffected by heavy artillery bombardment.

The Arab Revolt

Nationalism was growing in the Arab world in opposition to the Ottoman Empire. The British exploited these feelings by convincing Arab nationalist movements to carry out a rebellion against the Ottoman Empire. This Arab Revolt was carried out in exchange for the creation of an Arab area of independence after the war.

However, the Allies’ true intention was very different from what they’d pacted.

In 1916, the French and British secretly signed the Sykes-Picot Accords. Contrary to the promises made to create this Arab area of independence, the agreement divided the region between France and the UK. The Balfour Declaration by the British government was another blow to the Arabs because it supported Jewish claims to a state of their own in Palestine.

The Characteristics of the War

A Global War

The First World War was a global war which involved both soldiers and the civilian populations back home.

New Weapons

The weapons used during the war made it the deadliest conflict the world had ever seen. Nine million soldiers and seven million civilians lost their lives.

Grenades, flamethrowers, and machine guns forced soldiers on both sides to fight from trenches. Chemicals, such as mustard gas, were also used. They caused blindness and suffocation. Soldiers had to wear gas masks to protect themselves. Tanks helped soldiers move over difficult terrain. Aeroplanes were initially used for reconnaissance, but later for fighting and bombing.

Germany also introduced the effective strategy of unrestricted submarine warfare, particularly against the British Empire. While the UK was blocking supplies to the Central Powers, German torpedoes sank ships carrying supplies and weapons to Britain and France.

The War on the Home Front

The First World War forced countries to mobilize all their human and economic resources. Millions of men were recruited to fight in the war. At the same time, all economic output went towards the war effort. As manufacturing focused on military products and supplies, industry was transformed. Furthermore, the priority was to get supplies to the army, even at the expense of the civilian population. Countries introduced rationing to try and mitigate the resulting supply shortages back home. Major propaganda campaigns helped keep civilians behind the war effort. These campaigns were often ultra-nationalist, exalting the homeland while building hatred of the enemy. They encouraged men to enlist and the rest of the population to play their part by accepting the sacrifices they were being forced to make. Countries also reduced freedoms and liberties because of the war. Governments imposed censorship on the press to prevent anti-war articles. Pacifists and conscientious objectors (people who refuse to serve in the military for moral reasons) were harassed and shunned in the streets.

The Role of Women

The First World War brought with it a change in the role of women. Since an increasing number of men were being sent off to war, women were needed to fill their jobs. Although many working-class women had been working in factories since the Industrial Revolution, women were still mainly defined by passivity and fragility. During the war, advertising campaigns started showing women as strong and independent and capable of working tirelessly to help win the war. There was therefore a huge change in the world of work. Women from all social classes were able to have jobs they were previously unable to access, such as bus and train drivers, bank and post office employees, clerks, nurses, firefighters, and police officers. This helped transform gender roles and strengthened their fight for women’s suffrage later.

The Peace Treaties

At the Paris Peace Conference (1919-1920), the Allied Powers met to discuss the conditions of peace. Five treaties resulted from the conference and had a series of important consequences.

• The Austro-Hungarian Empire was dismantled. Italy annexed some parts of it, and other parts formed new countries.
• The Ottoman Empire fell and was eventually replaced by the Republic of Turkey. Turkish people that remained in the European regions of this former empire were exiled. France and the UK ruled the regions between Syria and Yemen.
• The Treaty of Versailles placed harsh conditions on Germany. It had to accept responsibility for the war. Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France, and other lands were given to Denmark, Belgium, and Poland. In addition, Germany’s colonial possessions were shared out among the Allied Powers. The country was disarmed, and there were severe restrictions on the use of submarines, military planes, and the size of the German army. Germany was also ordered to pay reparations of 226,000 million marks.

In addition to the peace treaties, US President Woodrow Wilson proposed his Fourteen Points to guarantee peace. Wilson also promoted the establishment of the League of Nations, an international organization which focused on maintaining international peace and cooperation. The organization proved to be ineffective, and the defeated countries, Russia and the United States, never even joined.

Consequences of the War

• Demographic Disaster: In addition to the millions of soldiers and civilians that were killed, around 30 million people were wounded.
• Economic Losses: Europe suffered industrial losses. It was left in debt, particularly to the United States, which became the new hegemonic power.
• Resentment and Future Conflict: The desire for revenge in the UK and France led to harsh conditions of peace for Germany. These conditions provoked feelings of injustice in Germany. This hostility was one of the factors that contributed to the outbreak of the Second World War.
• Advancement of Women’s Rights: The role of women during the war advanced women’s rights and led to women’s suffrage in many countries.

The Russian Revolution

The Russian Revolution was a series of events which led to the fall of the Tsarist Regime in Russia and the creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).

Background

At the start of the 20th century, Russia was an autocratic empire. It was ruled by a tsar who was supported by a large army, the police, and bureaucracy. The tsar had absolute power. Parliament, on the other hand, had no power; political parties were banned, and any opposition was persecuted. Society was set up as a semi-feudal system. Within this system, the royal family, rich landowners, and the church received great privileges. Agriculture was the main economic activity, and most of the population were peasants. These peasants were struggling to pay the high taxes imposed on them. Many moved from the countryside to cities to find work as the country began to industrialize. Nevertheless, despite new opportunities in cities, they found the working conditions just as miserable. In this context, opposition movements emerged, and underground political parties formed.

• In 1898, the Social Democratic Workers’ Party was founded and led by Vladimir Lenin. The party eventually split to form the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks. At the start of the 20th century, the Social Revolutionary Party appeared. It had lots of support among the peasantry.
• In 1905, the liberal Constitutional Democratic Party was formed. It had lots of support among the bourgeoisie.

Food shortages were compounded by higher taxes and the conscription requirements during the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). In January 1905, workers protested in St Petersburg and peacefully marched to the Winter Palace to demand reforms. They were brutally repressed by government soldiers in a massacre called Bloody Sunday. Strikes and protests spread across Russia and led to the creation of the soviets: a group of Russian workers, soldiers, and peasants. Although Tsar Nicholas II ceded part of his power to parliament (the Duma), in practice, he maintained absolute control.

The February Revolution of 1917

Russia’s participation in the First World War worsened the country’s poor economic and political situation. It also highlighted weaknesses in its military, its industry, and its transport networks. Furthermore, as peasants left the countryside to go and fight in the war, production declined. As a consequence, food scarcity and famine followed.

In February 1917 (March according to our calendar), peasants and workers grouped into soviets demonstrated in St Petersburg demanding ‘peace, land, and bread.’ When the army refused to suppress the protests, the tsar was forced to abdicate. A liberal provisional government was installed. Although it moved forward with political reforms, changes to the country’s economic situation didn’t come. Despite huge increases in the number of deserters, Russia also remained in the war. Public protests intensified in July, which the provisional government tried to repress. The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, continued gaining support. Peasants and workers, grouped into soviets, organized themselves into a parallel government. They demanded the resignation of the provisional government. They also demanded Russia’s immediate withdrawal from the war and a solution to the country’s economic crisis.

The October Revolution of 1917

The Bolsheviks won the support of the majority of soviets with the publication of Lenin’s April Theses. This was Lenin’s manifesto on how to overthrow the government, establish a government of soviets, leave the war, and satisfy the peasants and workers. On 25 October, the Bolsheviks seized the Winter Palace and established a socialist government of workers and peasants. Elections were held in November 1917 after the constituent assembly convened, but the Bolsheviks only won 25% of the votes. Lenin dismissed the results and dissolved the assembly shortly after. One of the first moves the new government made was the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. This ended Russia’s involvement in the war even though it meant losing large areas of land. The government then put soviets at the center of power, carried out agricultural reforms, expropriated land, and nationalized factories and businesses.

Major Military Conflicts in the First Half of the 20th Century

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918)

• Affected Country: Russia
• Territorial Losses: Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland

Treaty of Versailles (June 1919)

• Affected Country: Germany
• Territorial Losses: Demilitarization of Rhineland, Alsace-Lorraine (to France), Posen-Poznan (to Poland) + Danzig, and Schleswig (to Denmark)

Treaty of Saint-Germain (September 1919)

• Affected Country: Austria
• Territorial Losses: South Tirol and Trieste (to Italy)

Treaty of Trianon (1920)

• Affected Country: Hungary
• Territorial Losses: Slovakia (to Czechoslovakia), Transylvania (to Romania), and Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina (to the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes -> Yugoslavia)

Treaty of Neuilly (1920)

• Affected Country: Bulgaria
• Territorial Losses: Western Thrace (to Greece) and some other western Bulgarian territories (to Kingdom of Serbs…)

Treaty of Sèvres (1920)

Affected to: OTTOMAN EMPIRETerritorial losses of that country: Lebanon + Syria (French Mandate), Cyprus + Palestine + Iraq (British Mandate) New countries + New political systems AFTER I World War (1918) NEW COUNTRIES: Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later named as YUGOSLAVIA). NEW POLITICAL SYSTEMS: – German EMPIRE – Weimar REPUBLIC (1918-1933): Russian EMPIRE – Union of SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS (1917/1922 – 1991), Austro-Hungarian EMPIRE -> 1st Austrian REPUBLIC (1918-1934/1938),Aust-Hung. EMPIRE -> Hungarian Soviet Republic (1919) -> Hungarian Kingdom (1919-1944),Ottoman EMPIRE -> Turkish REPUBLIC (1923-Today).The February Revolution of 1917:Russia’s participation in the First World War worsened the country’s poor economic and political situation.It also highlighted weaknesses in its military, its industry and its transport networks. Furthermore, as peasants left the countryside to go and fight in the war, production declined. As a consequence, food scarcity and famine followed.In February 1917 (March according to our calendar), peasants and workers grouped into soviets demonstrated in St Petersburg demanding ‘peace, land and bread. When the army refused to suppress the protests, the tsar was forced to abdicate.A liberal provisional government was installed.Although it moved forward with political reforms, changes to the country’s economic situation didn’t come. 

Despite huge increases in the number of deserters, Russia also remained in the war.Public protests intensified in July which the provisional government tried to repress.The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, continued gaining support. Peasants and workers, grouped into soviets, organised themselves into a parallel government.They demanded the resignation of the provisional government. They also demanded Russia’s immediate withdrawal from the war and a solution to the country’s economic crisis.The October Revolution of 1917The Bolsheviks won the support of the majority of soviets with the publication of Lenin’s April Theses.This was Lenin’s manifesto on how to overthrow the government, establish a government of soviets, leave the war and satisfy the peasants and workers.On 25 October, the Bolsheviks seized the Winter Palace and established a socialist government of workers and peasants.Elections were held in Nagember 1917 after the constituent assembly convened, but the Bolsheviks only won 25% of the votes. Lenin dismissed the results and dissolved the assembly shortly after.One of the first moves the new government made was the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. This ended Russia’s involvement in the war even though it meant losing large areas of land. The government then put soviets at the centre of power, carried out agricultural reforms, expropriated land and nationalised factories and businesses.