The Catholic Monarchs: Unification and the Dawn of Modern Spain
In Spain, the Modern Age began with the Catholic Monarchs (Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon). They laid the foundations for Spanish hegemony in Europe, which was consolidated during the 16th century by Charles I and Philip II.
The Dynastic Union of Castile and Aragon
The marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon in 1469 was the first step toward the union of the Kingdom of Castile and the states belonging to the Crown of Aragon. The process was completed in 1479.
In reality, this was only a dynastic union, meaning that the rule of the two monarchs was the only thing the respective territories had in common. These territories maintained their separate institutions, laws, customs, and currencies.
Strengthening the Spanish State
The Catholic Monarchs reinforced their royal power, establishing an authoritarian monarchy in Spain and controlling all state powers. This strengthening was achieved through several key actions:
Territorial Unification
This began with the annexation of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada to Castile (1492), completing the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula. The process concluded with the annexation of the Kingdom of Navarre (1512). Efforts were also made to prepare a future union with Portugal through marriage ties.
Religious Unity
The Catholic Monarchs created the Tribunal of the Inquisition (1478), an institution that pursued heretics and Judaizers. They forced both the Jews (1492) and Granada’s Mudéjars (1500) to either submit to baptism or leave the country.
Establishment of the Modern State
The monarchs implemented significant administrative and political reforms:
- They imposed their authority over the nobility, clergy, and municipalities, enabling them to gain control over the high-ranking nobility. They intervened in the appointment of bishops and controlled the property of the military orders.
- They reduced the autonomy of the municipalities by appointing chief magistrates in Castile and holding lotteries for appointments in Aragon.
- They hardly ever summoned the Cortes, the legislative body representing the three estates.
- They reformed the administration. They created Councils made up of jurists, and Chancillerías or Audiencias, which were royal courts located in Valladolid and Granada.
- They established efficient fiscal policies and increased royal income.
- They created the Santa Hermandad (Holy Brotherhood), which maintained social order in rural areas.
- They also modernized the army by organizing it into regiments called tercios.
Expansion of Castile and Aragon: Foreign Policy
The Catholic Monarchs’ foreign policy, primarily planned by Ferdinand II of Aragon, focused on three strategic areas: Africa, the Atlantic, and Europe. As a result of this policy:
- Castile conquered fortresses in North Africa: Melilla (1495), Oran (1509), and Algiers and Tripoli (1510).
- In competition with Portugal, Spain continued its Atlantic expansion, resulting in the conquest of the Canary Islands (1496) and the discovery of America (1492).
- In Europe, Aragon continued its long-running rivalry with France. This rivalry led to the recapture of Roussillon and Cerdanya in southern France, and the conquest of Naples, resulting in the definitive expulsion of the French from Southern Italy.