The Catholic Monarchs: Forging the Spanish State
The Creation of the Modern State: Catholic Monarchs
The Catholic Monarchs (Reyes Católicos) established the first example of an authoritarian monarchy in the Hispanic kingdoms. They created organs of government that depended directly on the Crown and actively sought to subdue the power of the nobility and the clergy.
Dynastic Union of Castile and Aragon
The marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, heirs to the two most important crowns of the Iberian Peninsula, led to the formation of the Hispanic Monarchy. This was fundamentally a dynastic union of two separate crowns, where each kingdom continued to be governed by its own laws and institutions.
This structure formed a plural state, consisting of several territories (Castile, Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia) united under a single monarchy. While the word “Spain” referred generally to the association of all the peoples of the Iberian Peninsula, it held no formal political significance at the time.
Laws, currency, and institutions remained distinct in each kingdom, meaning that boundaries between these areas required the payment of duties on goods.
Despite this apparent equilibrium, throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the political influence of the Crown of Aragon gradually declined relative to Castile.
Territorial Expansion and Foreign Policy
Upon uniting the two crowns, the Catholic Monarchs prioritized the territorial unification of the Hispanic kingdoms to build a strong state capable of expansion beyond the peninsula. Key territorial achievements included:
- Conquest of Granada (1492): The Kingdom of Granada was annexed to the Crown of Castile.
- Incorporation of Navarre (1512/1515): Ferdinand, acting as ruler of Castile after Isabella’s death, joined Navarre to Castile in 1515, though this territory retained its autonomy and institutions.
- Occupation of the Canary Islands: Supported by Andalusian merchants, the occupation of the Canary Islands was completed.
The Monarchs dedicated significant effort to foreign policy, reflecting the distinct interests of the two crowns: Castile focused on the Atlantic, while Aragon focused on the Mediterranean.
Ferdinand successfully regained the territories of Roussillon and Sardinia (Treaty of Barcelona, 1493). He later formed a powerful army that defeated the French, solidifying the Crown of Aragon’s dominion over Naples in 1504.
To halt the Muslim advance in the Mediterranean, the Monarchs undertook several conquests, gaining control over key domains along the coast of North Africa.
Furthermore, they conducted an intensive marriage policy, forging alliances with several major European countries, including Germany (Holy Roman Empire) and Portugal.
Strengthening Royal Power and New Institutions
The Monarchs sought not only territorial unity but also the imposition of their authority over the nobility and the clergy. They successfully subdued both groups, asserting the Crown’s supremacy.
Key institutional developments included:
- Standing Army: The Monarchs created a permanent standing army. While the nobility was increasingly excluded from political decision-making, they retained their military roles and were kept salaried.
- Diplomatic Corps: Foreign policy was reinforced by creating a permanent body dedicated to handling diplomatic affairs.
- The Holy Brotherhood (Santa Hermandad): This organization was established to maintain order and security, and it also served as a means of raising taxes.
The Catholic Monarchs traveled extensively throughout their territories, administering justice without establishing a fixed capital for the kingdoms.
The Imposition of Religious Uniformity
The monarchy inherited a society characterized by significant religious diversity, where Christians, Jews, and Muslims coexisted, often with difficulty. The Catholic Monarchs were determined to preserve and expand Catholicism, viewing religious unity as essential for political stability.
This goal led to the persecution of those who belonged to other faiths, most notably through:
- The establishment of the Spanish Inquisition (1478) to ensure doctrinal purity.
- The Expulsion of the Jews (1492).