The Catholic Monarchs and the Discovery of America
The Catholic Monarchs and the Dynastic Union
Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon married in 1469. Isabella was King Henry IV of Castile’s sister, and Ferdinand was King John II of Aragon’s son and heir. In 1474, Henry IV died, and Isabella became Queen of Castile after fighting her niece, Joanna la Beltraneja, for the throne. Ferdinand became King of Aragon in 1479 when his father died. Their marriage did not unite the two kingdoms into one; it created a dynastic union. Both kingdoms kept their own laws, institutions, borders, and currency, but both monarchs ruled their territories together and introduced the same international policies.
Politics on the Iberian Peninsula and Foreign Policy
After the dynastic union, the Catholic Monarchs tried to unify the whole Iberian Peninsula by annexation or marriage:
- Granada: The Nasrid Kingdom was in civil war, which made it easier to conquer. King Boabdil surrendered in 1492, ending Muslim rule and the Christian Reconquest.
- Navarre: King Ferdinand invaded the kingdom in 1512 due to its alliance with France. He annexed it to Castile but kept its laws and institutions.
- Portugal: They used royal marriages to link the kingdoms, marrying their daughter Isabella to King Manuel I. When Isabella died, he married their other daughter, Maria.
In foreign policy, they expanded territory and influence across Europe and North Africa through conquests and marriage alliances. Aragon’s priority was the Mediterranean, fighting France for control of Naples. To defend the Mediterranean Sea, they conquered coastal towns like Melilla in North Africa. Their daughter Joanna married Philip IV of Burgundy, heir to the House of Burgundy and the House of Habsburg. Their oldest daughter, Catherine, married Arthur, Prince of Wales, and after he died, she married the future king of England, Henry VIII.
State Structures and Religious Union
To control the whole territory, the Catholic Monarchs took power from the nobility and clergy by giving them social and economic privileges. They introduced a state structure with institutions:
- Councils: Lawyers and officials who advised the monarchy (e.g., Council of Castile, Council of Aragon, Council of War).
- Royal Secretaries: Close advisors who connected the monarchy to the different councils.
- Viceroys: Represented the king and queen in each kingdom.
- Santa Hermandad: Created in 1476, an armed body that maintained social order.
- Royal Treasury Office: Collected money for the monarchy from new taxes.
- Corregidores: In charge of town halls in cities, representing the monarchy.
- Permanent Army: Professional soldiers paid by the monarchy who replaced the nobility’s armies.
- Military Orders: Placed under the control of the monarchy.
- Royal Court and Chancery: Created to ensure justice and make it more effective.
Religious Unity: The Catholic Monarchs sought religious unity. After a 10-year war, they and Sultan Boabdil signed the Treaty of Granada, allowing Muslims to practice their religion. However, the monarchs later forced Jews to convert to Christianity (conversos) or face expulsion. The same happened to Muslims, who had to choose conversion (Moriscos) or expulsion. The Inquisition’s main role was to watch the conversos.
Great Expeditions
From the late 15th century, Europeans started long trips for four main reasons: Economics (new routes after the fall of Constantinople), Politics (rivalry between Portugal and Castile), Religion (spreading Christianity), and Technical Advancements (rudder, compass, and caravels).
Portuguese Discoveries: Exploration began with Henry the Navigator. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias sailed around the Cape of Good Hope. Ten years later, Vasco da Gama reached India.
Treaty of Tordesillas and the First Voyage Around the World
To resolve conflicts over the discovery of America, Portugal and the Catholic Monarchs signed the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, dividing the world into two hemispheres. Later, Ferdinand Magellan offered to find a western route to India for Charles I. After Magellan’s death, Juan Sebastian Elcano completed the first voyage around the world in 1522.
Pre-Columbian Cultures
Columbus arrived in lands inhabited by great civilizations. Common traits included agriculture-based economies, hierarchical societies, polytheistic religions, and advanced cultural developments.
- Aztecs: Settled in central Mexico with their capital, Tenochtitlan. Known for complex architecture, sculpture, and precise calendars.
- Maya: Inhabited the Yucatan Peninsula and surrounding areas. Lived in city-states like Tikal and Palenque; known for astronomical knowledge and hieroglyphic writing.
- Incas: Formed a vast empire across the Andes with their capital in Cuzco. Known for an extensive road network, the mita system, and terrace farming.