The Catalan Language in the 17th and 19th Centuries
The Catalan Language in the 17th Century
A Society in Crisis
During the 17th century, the Catalan and Spanish crowns were united under the rule of Charles I after the death of Ferdinand of Aragon. This marked the beginning of a new era in Catalan history, characterized by the prevailing Caesarist ideology and the strengthening of the emerging states’ military and political machinery. This led to a decline that affected all aspects of Catalan society, including politics, culture, and art. The introduction of repressive religious and ideological measures following the Council of Trent isolated Catalan lands from European cultural and artistic developments. The Catalan economy also declined while the Spanish Empire flourished. This political and economic subordination resulted in cultural and linguistic subordination, leading to a deep crisis that initiated a process of language shift.
Causes of the Crisis
Political Causes
The loss of political sovereignty during the 16th and 17th centuries, the displacement of the court towards central Spain, and the rapid assimilation of the Catalan nobility contributed to the crisis. The Catalan nobility’s adherence to the imperial project was reinforced by the Revolt of the Brotherhoods. The use of Castilian Spanish as the language of power further highlighted the declining prestige of the Catalan language. The absolutist ideology and the expulsion of the Moors also played a role. The Catalan Revolt (also known as the Reapers’ War) was triggered by Spanish intervention in Catalan affairs. Although Catalonia retained its laws and institutions after the war, the Treaty of the Pyrenees resulted in the loss of territory to France. The Church also played a significant role in promoting the Spanish language in Catalan territory.
Cultural Causes
The weakening connection between Catalonia and the centers of power led to a decline in literary production, hindering the development of Catalan literature. The Catalan language faced competition from Latin, and the printing press favored the expansion of Spanish. Changes in the linguistic system encouraged dialectalization and the proliferation of regional variations.
Economic Causes
At the end of the 17th century, the Principality of Catalonia began to experience economic recovery. However, the situation in Valencia was different. The expulsion of the Moors left large areas unpopulated and caused a profound crisis, particularly affecting the lower classes. In the Balearic Islands, the repression of the Jewish minority, known as the Chuetas, also had a negative impact.
The Catalan Language in the 18th Century
Military Occupation and Repression
Philip V promulgated the Nueva Planta decrees, which abolished the historical rights and institutions of Catalonia, Valencia, Aragon, and Majorca. The decrees imposed a new absolutist model and established the figure of the Captain General, who commanded the army in the name of the king. The imposition of the absolutist model was accompanied by repression, including the implementation of a new tax called the Catastro and the abolition of all existing universities in the Principality, replaced by a single university in Cervera. The Nueva Planta decrees also mandated the use of Spanish in the Royal Audiencia and progressively expanded the ban on Catalan to all spheres of public life.
During the 18th century, a diglossic mentality gradually emerged in Catalan society, with Spanish occupying public and official domains while Catalan was relegated to private and informal use. This explains the linguistic defection of some intellectuals.
The Persecution in Northern Catalonia
In Northern Catalonia, the persecution of the Catalan language was even more active, with prohibitions on its use particularly affecting teaching and preaching.
The Catalan Language in the 19th Century
Suppression and Language Usage
The process of linguistic minoritization continued during the Napoleonic Wars and the subsequent French occupation. However, some official acts and council proceedings were written in Catalan during this period. The partial recovery of the official use of language and the translation of the Napoleonic Codes into Catalan prompted reflection on the social viability of the language. Despite these developments, the ongoing struggle for political control of the Principality meant that Castilianization continued to progress. The sociolinguistic context tended towards diglossic bilingualism.
The Reinaxença: Past and Future
The Reinaxença (Renaissance) was a cultural and political movement that aimed to recover Catalan national consciousness and promote cultural and linguistic renewal. The language became a key element of identification. The movement had a significant impact in the Principality of Catalonia, but its influence was less pronounced in Valencia and the Balearic Islands.
The Regional Presence
In Valencia, the cultural recovery movement differed from that in the Principality, although a sense of revival was present in some poems. The Valencian Renaissance was primarily led by the conservative sector. In the Balearic Islands, the Renaissance was associated with the contributions of Mariano Aguiló in the field of scholarship and popular poetry.
The Renaissance Program
The Renaissance movement aimed to recover Catalan culture and regulate the language. The restoration of the Floral Games provided a platform for the dissemination of Catalan literature and contributed to the success of the Renaissance initiative.
The debate on spelling reform led to the emergence of two main groups: the supporters of a phonetic spelling based on contemporary speech and the advocates of a more academic approach.
The Linguistic Regulation of the Language
The younger generations, associated with the magazine L’Avenç, sought to standardize spelling, unify the cultured and popular language models, and purify the lexicon of perceived barbarisms. Pompeu Fabra was the driving force behind the linguistic reform promoted by the L’Avenç group.
Antonio M. Alcover
Antonio M. Alcover’s contributions were crucial in the development of the Catalan language. His collection of folktales, published in 24 volumes under the title Aplec de rondalles mallorquines d’en Jordi d’es Racó, provided a significant impetus to the First International Congress of the Catalan Language.
Pompeu Fabra
Pompeu Fabra played a decisive role in the linguistic regulation of Catalan. He initiated a spelling reform campaign with works such as Ensayo de gramática moderna and participated in the First International Congress of the Catalan Language. Fabra’s reform aimed at creating a modern and standardized Catalan language based on four criteria:
- Clarity and precision: The language should be suitable for both colloquial conversation and the expression of complex thoughts.
- Relationship between written and spoken language: The language should serve as a common vehicle for the entire community, avoiding a split between the spoken and written forms.
- Harmony with other languages of culture: Fabra advocated for a consistent spelling system that would facilitate access to other European languages.
- Supradialectal nature: The standardized language should not be based on any specific dialect but should integrate elements from all dialects.
The process of linguistic regulation culminated in the publication of dictionaries of the Catalan language.
The Institute of Catalan Studies
The Institute of Catalan Studies (IEC) played a crucial role in the linguistic reform movement. Its foundation helped to definitively resolve the issue of spelling standardization.
The Catalan Language under Franco
Social and Linguistic Repression
The Franco regime, established in 1939, initiated a long period of persecution and repression of the Catalan language and culture. The regime’s repressive policies aimed to create an atmosphere of terror and suppress any expression of Catalan identity. The ban on the use of Catalan affected all areas of public life.
The Stages of a Continuing Crackdown
The repression of the Catalan language under Franco can be divided into three stages:
- The first stage (1939-1944) was characterized by the influence of Italian fascism and German Nazism.
- The second stage (1945-1953) saw a shift towards a more autocratic and dictatorial model following the defeat of the Axis powers in World War II. However, the repression of Catalan culture and language continued.
- From 1953 onwards, following the signing of a treaty with the United States, the Franco regime’s international isolation decreased, leading to a slight relaxation of repressive methods. However, the persecution of the Catalan language persisted.
In the last fifteen years of the dictatorship, characterized by rapid economic development, there was an increase in workers’ demonstrations and acts of support for Catalan culture. Despite the ongoing repression, the Catalan language and culture showed resilience and continued to be a source of identity for many Catalans.