The Carlist Wars and Reign of Isabel II: A Historical Analysis
The First Carlist War (1833-1839)
Upon the death of Ferdinand VII in 1833, a dispute over succession to the throne between Maria Cristina (the Queen Regent) and her daughter Isabel triggered a civil war that lasted until 1839. The alliance between Maria Cristina and the liberals led to a conflict between liberalism and traditional absolutism. The Basque Country and Navarre became key battlegrounds due to the question of maintaining their provincial privileges, such as the right to tax themselves and the elimination of the quinto (a tax), among others.
Carlism advocated for maintaining these privileges and protecting religion, which enjoyed broad support in the Basque-Navarre region, especially among farmers and artisans. The upper classes, seeking to restore absolutism, supported Isabel II, while the liberal reforms aimed to create a unified market. Initially, the conflict consisted mainly of guerrilla warfare.
Following Zumalacarregui’s failed attempt to occupy Bilbao, many Carlists sought an agreement with the Elizabethan government. This led to the Embrace of Vergara between Espartero and Maroto, which recognized the military ranks of Carlist officers and maintained some foral (chartered) freedoms.
The Reign of Isabel II (1843-1868)
After Espartero’s exile, Isabel II was declared of age, establishing a centralized liberal state. The moderate liberal party governed for almost the entire period, except for the progressive biennium.
The Moderate Decade (1844-1854)
The first ten years, presided over by General Narvaez, were characterized by strict moderate centralization, political conservatism, and control of the state. In the Basque Country, the Provincial Councils and the General Meetings were restored with their previous administrative and economic powers. Customs arrangements, the justice system, and the pase foral (right of the provinces to approve royal decrees) remained unchanged. The Constitution of 1845 also reduced the electorate in the Basque Country.
In 1848, a wave of radical progressive uprisings occurred in Madrid and Catalonia, along with Republican uprisings in the Pyrenees. Narvaez implemented severe measures to maintain order. In 1849, progressives founded the Democratic Party, advocating for a transformation of the system, including human rights, freedom of assembly and association, and universal male suffrage. In 1845, the moderates approved a new law on municipalities, which made local authorities subordinate to government delegates. This law was applied in the Basque Country despite social protests.
In the same year, a new, fully moderate constitution was enacted, based on shared sovereignty, a bicameral Cortes (parliament), with members of the Senate appointed for life, and the Congress elected by census suffrage. State finances were supported by direct taxes on urban property and agricultural land yields.
The Democratic Sexennium (1868-1874)
In September 1868, the Glorious Revolution began with Topete’s pronouncement in Cádiz, backed by Generals Prim and Serrano. The Republicans were excluded from the first provisional government. In the first election, the progressives, unionists, and a monarchical-democratic coalition won. In the Basque Country, Carlist candidates, who defended religious unity, were overwhelmingly defeated.
The government enacted the Constitution of 1869, which defended national sovereignty, the separation of powers, freedom of association, and universal male suffrage. The king’s legislative power was limited. Republicans staged numerous uprisings, demanding the replacement of the monarchy with a republic through federalism. The Carlists intensified their armed offensive to defeat the liberal government. In 1871, Amadeo I ascended to the throne.