The Bourbon Restoration in Spain: A Historical Analysis (1874-1923)
The Bourbon Restoration in Spain (1874-1923)
The restoration of the Bourbon dynasty to the throne of Spain marked the end of the First Republic. Shaken by the Third Carlist War and the Cuban insurrection of 1868, the First Republic had been incapable of organizing a stable political project. The driver of the new regime was Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, who organized a liberal monarchical system, although not democratic. Its foundations were established and consolidated during the reign of Alfonso XII and the regency of María Cristina. Chronologically, it covers the historical period between the pronouncement of General Martínez Campos at Sagunto on December 29, 1874, by which he proclaimed King Alfonso XII, until the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera in 1923. In this period, there are two stages:
- From 1874 until the death of Alfonso XII in 1885, when the system was built.
- From the minority of Alfonso XIII during the regency of his mother, Maria Cristina (1885-1902), and the reign of Alfonso XIII, to the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1902-1923), marking the final crisis of the Restoration System.
The Military Conspiracy
In December 1874, General Martínez Campos proclaimed King Alfonso XII of Spain through a military coup, restoring the House of Bourbon six years after Queen Isabella II had been overthrown. But in reality, the monarchical restoration was planned during the Revolutionary Sexenio when Cánovas faced the Alfonsino Party in 1873 and received full powers from Isabella II in preparation for the return to the throne of her son.
The Proclamation of the Restoration
Cánovas’s draft was to get the restoration claimed by a large public sector, building political discontent. A military coup was not in his plans. Cánovas had advised a British education for Prince Alfonso, as Cánovas was a great admirer of the British parliamentary system. Prince Alfonso was sent to the Sandhurst military academy. From there, after the military takeover, Alfonso XII issued a manifesto written by Cánovas himself, stating that the monarchy was the only way to end the crisis of the revolutionary period, in which they cited the heart of what would be the restored system (Sandhurst Manifesto). The new regime was quickly recognized by foreign powers, including the Holy See.
The entry of Alfonso XII into Spain began a long period of political stability based on a political system governed by the conservative values of order, property, and monarchy, cleverly combined with the formal aspects and institutional developments of the Liberal State.
The Foundations of the System
Cánovas stated the ideological principles and laid the institutional and legal bases of the system, removing hazards that caused the failure of the Elizabethan regime. He proposed setting aside the army from political power and pacifying the country. For political stability, he included various liberal views on a common project based on the monarchy. This was reflected in the organization of a party system, following the British model, and the adoption of a constitution flexible enough to enable it to adapt to the programs of both parties.
Political Parties
Restoration Spain played a party structure that, although linked to the Elizabethan era, underwent a reorganization in the administration. The reference is to the British two-party model, which imposes a parliamentary discipline hitherto unusual. The old moderates and progressives changed their names to conservatives and liberals. Dynastic parties were called to be loyal to the crown. These two parties took turns in power through their own mechanisms for a parliamentary system, while the rest of the political groups were excluded from the political game.
- The Conservative Party, led by Antonio Cánovas del Castillo. Its formation process was initiated during the six years, integrating moderates, constitutionalists, and dissident Unionists. It represented the interests of the landowning and financial bourgeoisie and residual groups of the Old Regime.
- The Liberal Party, led by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta. It integrated Democrats, radicals, and moderate Republicans. They were meant to represent the less radical aspects of the Revolution of 1868. This earned him the backing of the liberal professions, the industrial and commercial bourgeoisie, and officials.
The ideological and political differences between the two parties were minimal. Those most concerned about social reform and education were the liberals, and the most authoritarian and defenders of order and established values were the conservatives.
In opposition were the Republicans, the Federalists, nationalists, and workers’ parties.
The Constitution of 1876
To legitimize the parliamentary monarchy, a constitution was required to regulate and ensure the new political regime. The first courts were convened by universal suffrage. In fact, the manipulation of elections by the Conservative government allowed them to write a constitution that favored their interests. It was inspired by the Constitution of 1845 but incorporated some aspects of 1869, primarily regarding the recognition of rights and freedoms.
The 1876 Constitution provided that:
- Sovereignty was shared between the courts and the Crown.
- The king was inviolate, meaning that he had the executive power exercised through the government and the legislative initiative.
- The courts were bicameral.
- The rights and freedoms of individuals were recognized.
- The right of universal suffrage was omitted, and the right of association was added.
- Catholicism was recognized as the official religion, but freedom of religion was also accepted.
Caciquismo
The system devised by Cánovas based its operation on the peaceful shift of the two dynastic parties. That is, parties loyal to the crown agreed on access to government without resorting to military uprisings. It ensured that the monarchy was not identified with one party and ensured the continuity of the regime removed from power because of the other political party.
To ensure the turn, they resorted to electoral fraud, as well as the political system did not use democratic procedures.
The caciques (local bosses) were the linchpin of the system. They were used by parties to ensure the delivery of the majority required to govern outside the electorate. They resorted to vote-buying or coercion. The procedures used for the practice of caciquismo were twofold:
- El encasillado: The mechanism of the shift was as follows: in a regular and agreed form, the king instructed the formation of a new government to the party that had to govern. This party, from the Interior Ministry, drew up the list of Members (encasillado) who should go in each district, always reserving some seats for the dynastic opposition. The encasillado was delivered to the provincial governors, who in turn imposed it on provincial and local councils through the local cacique.
- El pucherazo: This practice shortened the paths to achieve the same goal: the imposition of a pro-government candidate. This was achieved through prior coercion to manipulate elections, distortion of the vote, theft or destruction of electoral records, and so on.
The lists of members included members of the upper bourgeoisie and aristocracy, which constituted an oligarchy that monopolized the political-administrative positions and seats in the courts.
Voter fraud was a common practice of both parties throughout the period of restoration, even when universal male suffrage was introduced in 1890. Only in major urban centers, where political opposition was stronger, did it become increasingly difficult to control by the caciques.
This system was consolidated for favoring political stability. By eliminating the opposition, it reduced the risk of radicalization, which would have altered the established social order and class interests on which the regime rested: aristocracy and landowners, financial bourgeoisie, and the colonial army and church. In fact, neither the middle classes nor the popular classes felt represented by the system, so they distanced themselves from political affairs.
Steps in Setting Up the System: The Reign of Alfonso XII and the Regency of María Cristina
Since the coup d’état of Sagunto to the practice of universal suffrage, several stages can be distinguished:
- The military and ideological pacification (1874-1878). The Reign of Alfonso XII sought to achieve two fundamental goals: the end of operations at the Carlist front (1876) and the end of the Cuban insurrection (Peace of Zanjón).
- The consolidation of the two-party system (1876-1885) was achieved through the existence of Conservative and Liberal parties.
- The Pact of El Pardo (1885-1909). In 1885, coinciding with the death of Alfonso XII, a bipartisan agreement was reached on the rotation of power. The result of this agreement was the access to power of Sagasta, who formed the long government, which secured the law of universal suffrage and trial by jury.
Cánovas’s system also coincided with a revival of the industry, which had its peak at the turn of the century.
The Social Foundations
The Cánovas regime was based on the support of the most conservative groups in the city. These highlighted the bourgeoisie.
But while talking about the dual existence of a Spain in which the industrial areas coexisted with a very backward country, where illiteracy was above 75% and with lifestyles and income levels of almost permanent misery.
Under these social conditions, the Restoration was supported by a society organized by the caciques. It undoubtedly had the support of the Church and the Army.