The Bolshevik Revolution: From Tsar to Soviets
The Russian Revolution of 1917
The First World War significantly impacted the Russian economy, which was ill-prepared for a prolonged conflict. Military defeats against Germany and substantial loss of life exacerbated the existing problems of supply and transport in the rear. The population was starving, and morale was at an all-time low.
The Events of February: The Fall of the Tsar
A strike on February 23, 1917, by textile workers in the capital inspired other workers to express solidarity. This escalated into a general strike, and on February 27, the military garrison mutinied, joining the workers. The Duma, controlled by liberals, established a provisional government, and Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate.
Kerensky became Prime Minister and planned to call an election to form a constituent assembly. Soviets (workers’ councils) multiplied and established a dual power structure alongside the provisional government. There was a unanimous desire for peace, and defections from the army increased as soldiers’ committees formed.
Lenin and the Bolshevik party capitalized on the widespread discontent, presenting themselves as a real alternative to the government.
The Ascent of the Bolsheviks
During the First World War, European socialism split between those who supported their respective governments and those who opposed the war, advocating for confrontation between workers and the bourgeoisie. Lenin, who had been exiled after the 1905 revolution, belonged to the latter group and returned to Russia.
The Bolshevik leader proposed a program of action known as the April Theses.
April Theses
- Rejection of the interim government and its decision to continue the war.
- Control of production and distribution by the Soviets.
- Transformation of the bourgeois republic into a republic of Soviets of workers and peasants.
Lenin’s program, summarized in the slogan “Peace, Bread, and Land,” resonated with the Russian people. Kerensky’s government refused to accept demands for land distribution and immediate peace negotiations, losing support from both the left and the right, including the armed forces. This paved the way for Lenin’s coup.
Finally, the Bolsheviks launched an armed rebellion against Kerensky’s government. Kerensky, lacking available troops, was forced to flee, and his ministers were arrested.
The First Steps of the New Regime
In October 1917, the Bolsheviks seized power in Petrograd and Moscow. However, they did not have effective control of the rest of the old empire. Poland and the Baltic coast were in the hands of the Germans. The Bolsheviks’ primary goal was to remain in power, anticipating a revolution in the rest of Europe.
The First Decisions of the Bolsheviks
- On Land: To gain the support of the peasants, the Bolsheviks adopted the land program of the Socialist Revolutionaries. Lands were nationalized and distributed by the Soviets. Private ownership of land was abolished, and the employment of wage labor was prohibited. These measures met the demands of the rural poor for access to small, independent farms.
- On Labor: Industrial workers legally established factory committees or councils. This meant that production was under the control of the workers themselves, and these committees were eventually coordinated by the Soviets.