The Birth of the Modern World (1870-1914): Imperialism, Industrialization, and Social Change

Posted on Aug 9, 2024 in History

1. The Birth of the Modern World (1870-1914)

In this period between 1870 and 1914, the foundations of today’s world were established.

  • Europe experienced a period of tense international relations due to rivalries between European countries, particularly Germany and France. This period is known as the “Armed Peace” (“Paz Armada”) and was a consequence of the Bismarckian system.
  • Spain became a second-class power after it lost its remaining colonies in 1898. This period is known as “The Disaster of ‘98″ (“El desastre del 98”).
  • The industrialized countries of Europe started producing manufactured goods in enormous quantities during the Second Industrial Revolution, leading to the growth of finance capitalism. At the same time, they began colonizing countries and regions rich in raw materials.
  • The rise of consumer society resulted in greater social inequalities. While the living standards of the upper and middle classes improved, the working class suffered the effects of economic crises.

2. Political Tension in Europe

Between 1871 and 1914, Europe experienced a period of uneasy peace known as the “Armed Peace” (“Paz Armada”). After the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871), there were no major wars between the European powers. However, relationships between these nations were characterized by increasing tension, and many countries increased their production of arms and military equipment, leading to an “Arms Race” (“La carrera de armamentos”).

Germany’s foreign policy became especially important during this period. This policy can be divided into two phases:

2.1 The Bismarckian System

German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck established a system of alliances with Austria, Russia, and Italy. France’s main objective during this period was to recover the region of Alsace-Lorraine, which it had lost to Germany in 1871. For twenty years, Bismarck used these alliances to prevent conflict in Europe, including a possible war with France over Alsace-Lorraine.

2.2 The Policies of Wilhelm II

When Wilhelm II came to the throne in 1888, he dismissed Bismarck and abandoned his system of alliances. Wilhelm II then began a policy of expansionism known as Weltpolitik. This led to increased competition between Germany and other European countries, especially in unstable regions such as Morocco and the Balkan Peninsula.

3. The Bourbon Restoration in Spain

The First Spanish Republic ended in 1874 with a military uprising and the proclamation of Alfonso XII, Isabel II’s son, as King of Spain. With Alfonso XII’s coronation, Spain became a parliamentary monarchy, resulting in a period of stability.

  • The conservative Constitution of 1876 established limited male suffrage.
  • There were only two official political parties, the Liberals and the Conservatives, who alternated in power by manipulating election results.
  • The king shared legislative power with the Cortes (Spanish Parliament).

A number of significant events occurred during Alfonso XII’s reign:

  • The Third Carlist War (1872-1876) ended with the victory of Alfonso XII and his forces.
  • Unofficial political groups, such as the Republicans, opposed the government because they felt excluded from the political system.
  • Regionalist movements developed in Andalusia, Catalonia, Galicia, and the Basque Country.

When Alfonso XII died in 1885, his wife Maria Cristina became regent for their son, Alfonso XIII, who was born shortly after his father’s death. During this regency, a series of colonial wars took place. As a result of the Spanish-American War (1898), Spain lost its last remaining colonies—Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines—to the United States. After what became known as the Disaster of ’98, Spain was relegated to second-class status in international politics.

The defeat that Spain suffered in 1898 had serious consequences. Many criticized the government, while the loss of colonial markets was detrimental to Spanish industry and trade. There were also working-class protests against conscription and the unfair rules that allowed people who could pay 2,000 pesetas to gain exemption from military service.

4. The Consequences of Finance Capitalism

The rise of finance capitalism between 1870 and 1914 had both positive and negative consequences:

4.1 Positive Consequences

  • Consumerism: A new culture of consumerism developed as people demanded more manufactured goods. Businesses also started to use advertising to increase sales and profits.
  • International Trade: There were improvements to transport systems, including new roads and railways.
  • Increased Industrial Productivity: Factories began to use the assembly-line (“trabajo en cadena”) system of production. This improved productivity and provided more of the new manufactured goods that consumers demanded.

4.2 Negative Consequences

  • Economic Instability: In periods of economic crisis, there was less demand for goods. This reduced business profits, resulting in factory closures, high unemployment, and social conflict.
  • Trade Imbalances: Industrialized countries bought raw materials from less developed countries and colonies at low prices and used them to manufacture goods. They then sold these goods in less developed countries and colonies at high prices. This caused serious trade imbalances between developed and less developed countries.

5. Imperialism

The main factors that led to imperial expansion were the emergence of finance capitalism and the rapid industrial development that the colonial powers experienced in this period.

  • Colonies provided industrialized countries with cheap raw materials.
  • Colonies also provided new markets where industrialized countries could sell the manufactured goods they produced at home.
  • For the imperial powers, colonies were also a symbol of international prestige. Imperial expansion could make a country more powerful in international terms.

As a result, the colonial powers competed with one another for control of strategic locations around the world. Colonies were also an attractive destination for European emigrants. Europe’s population had been growing steadily, and machines were replacing many workers in factories, so many working-class people emigrated to the colonies to look for work and better living standards. Some governments encouraged emigration to reduce social conflict.

European powers, along with the United States and Japan, colonized large areas of Africa, Asia, and Oceania, but the largest colonial empires belonged to Great Britain and France.

5.1 The British Empire

The British Empire was the largest colonial empire. It included colonies in North America, Asia, Africa, and Oceania. Its most important possessions were India and Australia.

5.2 The French Empire

The French Empire was not as extensive as the British Empire. It included colonies in Africa and Asia.

Imperialism had important consequences that still affect the world today:

  • Colonies were controlled by a minority that imposed European culture. Native people had second-class status, and racial segregation was common.
  • Rivalry between the imperial powers was one of the causes of the First World War.
  • The world economy became extremely imbalanced because the wealthy nations controlled industry and trade and exploited less developed countries.

6. Social Inequalities

While members of the upper and middle classes enjoyed the benefits of the consumer society, members of the working class often did not earn enough money to cover basic necessities, such as decent housing, food, and clothing. They also suffered more difficulties during periods of economic crisis, when unemployment and poverty forced many workers to emigrate.

Between 1880 and 1914, many workers participated in protests and strikes. In many countries, the number of workers’ associations and trade unions increased during this period. New Socialist and Communist parties were founded to defend workers’ rights in the political sphere.

7. Spanish Society at the Turn of the Century

In Spain, the enormous differences in wealth between the upper and lower classes also led to the establishment of political parties that defended workers’ rights and trade unions:

  • 1879: The Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE)
  • 1881: The Workers’ Federation of the Spanish Region (FTRE)
  • 1888: The General Union of Workers (UGT)
  • 1910: The National Confederation of Labor (CNT)

The Anarchist movement also found support among workers on large agricultural estates (latifundios) in Andalusia and industrial workers in Catalonia. However, the government responded to Anarchists’ use of violent tactics by repressing their organizations.

Glossary

Imperialism:
Domination of one country or people by another, usually involving direct control; also known as colonialism.
Consumer Society:
Society in which the buying and selling of goods and services is the most important activity.
Modernism:
Architectural style that produced buildings that were both practical and decorative.
Impressionism:
Experimental style of painting that aimed to create an impression in the minds of viewers.
Weltpolitik:
German policy of active participation in world politics.
Consumerism:
Desire to acquire more and more goods.
Assembly Line:
System of production using a moving belt in which each worker repetitively completes one part of the production process.
Racial Segregation:
System of separating people defined as belonging to different racial groups.
Socialist:
Based on the ideas of Karl Marx; describes a person or political party that advocates workers’ control of the economy and the redistribution of wealth.
Communist:
Based on the ideas of Karl Marx; describes a person or political party that advocates the dictatorship of the proletariat, the elimination of private property, and a society in which everyone is equal.