The Armed Peace and World War I: A Global Conflict and Its Aftermath
1. The Armed Peace (1880-1914)
The period leading up to World War I is known as the “Armed Peace” due to the underlying tensions and military preparedness of European nations, despite the absence of direct conflict.
Territorial Rivalries
The Second Industrial Revolution fueled competition for colonies as sources of raw materials and markets. This led to conflicts over territories such as:
- Alsace-Lorraine: Disputed between Germany and France.
- Trentino, Istria, and Dalmatia: Claimed by Italy but controlled by Austria-Hungary.
- Morocco: Rivalry between Great Britain, France, and Germany.
- Bosnia and Herzegovina: Under Austro-Hungarian control with a large Serbian population.
- Balkans: Austria-Hungary and Russia vied for dominance, while Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, and Montenegro sought independence.
Military Alliances
The arms race and diplomatic failures resulted in the formation of two opposing alliances:
- Triple Entente: Russia, France, and Great Britain (later joined by others, including the United States and Japan).
- Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy (Italy later switched sides).
2. World War I (1914-1918)
World War I, also known as the Great War, was a global conflict of unprecedented scale and devastation.
War Breaks Out (June-August 1914)
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria triggered a chain reaction due to the alliance system, leading to war declarations and the German invasion of Belgium.
War of Movement (August-September 1914)
Germany’s plan for a quick victory failed, resulting in stalemates on both the Western and Eastern Fronts.
Trench Warfare (October 1914-1917)
Both sides engaged in brutal trench warfare with minimal gains. Naval blockades, submarine warfare, and Italy’s entry into the war marked this phase.
The End of Stalemate (1917-1918)
Russia’s withdrawal and the United States’ entry into the war shifted the balance. Germany’s final offensive failed, leading to their surrender in November 1918.
4. The Paris Peace Conference
The victorious powers met in Paris to negotiate peace treaties. Key figures included Woodrow Wilson of the United States and Georges Clemenceau of France, each with differing priorities.
Wilson’s Fourteen Points
President Wilson proposed a plan for lasting peace based on principles such as freedom of navigation, self-determination, open diplomacy, and the establishment of the League of Nations.
Peace Treaties
The Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh terms on Germany, including war reparations, territorial losses, and military restrictions.
5. Consequences of the War
World War I had profound and lasting consequences across various aspects of society:
Demographic Consequences
- Massive casualties, both military and civilian.
- Declining birth rates.
- Deteriorating living conditions.
- Spanish flu pandemic.
Economic Consequences
- Increased government intervention in economies.
- War debts and hyperinflation.
- Shift in global economic power from Europe to the United States and Japan.
Social Consequences
- Greater participation of women in the workforce.
- Rise of pessimism and authoritarian movements.
Political Consequences
- Weakening of European powers and rise of non-European powers.
- Collapse of empires and rise of nationalism.
- Spread of independence movements in colonies.
- Failure of the peace treaties and the League of Nations to prevent future conflicts.