The Armed Peace (1890-1914): Causes and Key Events of WWI
The Armed Peace (1890-1914)
Following unification, Germany, under Chancellor Bismarck, became a major power in international politics. Bismarck established a system of alliances aimed at two goals: isolating France and maintaining equilibrium in the Balkans. However, Emperor William II adopted a more aggressive policy, initiating a new period in international relations known as the Armed Peace. This era was characterized by two main features:
- European powers were grouped into two military blocs: the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente.
- Mutual fear led to an intense arms race.
Armed clashes between colonial powers and colonial claims, particularly the two Moroccan crises, were a continuing source of problems. Germany attempted to prevent France from establishing a protectorate in Morocco. Another source of confrontation was the Eastern Question. The crumbling Ottoman Empire and Austria and Russia sought to increase their power in the region. Between 1908 and 1913, three serious crises occurred in the area.
The Crisis of Summer 1914
On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated in Sarajevo by a Serbian terrorist. On July 23, Austria presented an ultimatum to Serbia, which Serbia rejected on July 25. On July 28, Austria declared war on Serbia.
The conflict escalated into a world war as major powers and their respective empires became involved. Italy and other states, including the United States, also intervened. The war lasted four years, from 1914 to 1918.
The War of Movement (August 1914)
The German plan aimed for a quick victory over France, involving a surprise attack through Belgium. However, the Germans were stopped at the Battle of the Marne. Russia launched an offensive against Germany, but the Russians were defeated at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes.
The War of Position (1914-1917)
The failure of the German offensive led to trench warfare. The Germans tried to break through the fronts at the Battle of Verdun, and the British at the Battle of the Somme. With the main fronts stabilized, the Allies attempted to upset the balance in secondary areas.
The Crisis of 1917
In 1917, the military situation changed due to two main reasons:
- The Russian Revolution dethroned the Czar and established a communist government, leading to Russia’s withdrawal from the war and ceding territory to Germany.
- The United States entered the war, contributing a million soldiers and its powerful industry to the Allied forces.
The 1918 Offensive and End of the War
Russia’s withdrawal allowed Germany to launch a final offensive in the spring of 1918. The Allied response was successful. The Central Powers could not resist and surrendered. Finally, in Germany, Emperor William II abdicated. The war ended in November 1918.