The Ancien Régime, Enlightenment, and Succession War
The Ancien Régime
The Ancien Régime refers to the institutions that the revolutionary tradition sought to overthrow. This tradition included:
- Politically, identification with the absolute monarchy.
- Socially, a society based on estates.
- Economically, a command economy controlled by the State.
- Intellectually, attitudes and beliefs dominated by the principle of authority.
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment developed in Europe during the 17th century, mainly in France. Enlightenment thought was based on two pillars:
- Reason, as an instrument that addresses all knowledge and facilitates scientific understanding of the universe.
- A critical spirit, developed through the exercise of reason.
It had a twofold impact: it formed an opposition front to the institutions of the Ancien Régime and presented itself as a cultural revolution that sought economic progress and the modernization of science and the arts.
Enlightened Despotism
Some rulers adopted the cultural principles of the Enlightenment because it could lead to increased wealth and prosperity in their kingdoms. They are known as enlightened despots because they continued to rule with absolutism while being interested in the economic and cultural modernization of their states.
Neoclassicism
The rationalism of the Enlightenment did not align well with the decorative excesses of the Baroque period. The enlightened preferred the ideals of beauty, serenity, balance, and harmony found in Renaissance art. Therefore, Neoclassicism emerged. It was an academic and didactic style that aimed to produce universal rules and transmit values and norms.
The War of the Spanish Succession
Charles II died childless in 1700 and appointed Philip of Anjou as his successor, initiating the Bourbon dynasty. Philip could only take the crown after a conflict. Britain feared the union of the two kingdoms and proposed Archduke Charles of Austria as king, causing a conflict. The war resulted in a civil war between Castile, who favored Philip V, and the Crown of Aragon, who favored Charles of Austria.
The war ended with the Peace of Utrecht (1713), a set of treaties that resulted in three agreements:
- Philip V was recognized as King of Spain.
- Charles received the Netherlands, Milan, Naples, and Sardinia.
- Britain gained Gibraltar and Minorca.
The Crisis of the Reign of Charles IV
Charles IV ascended the throne in 1788. Internal policy was marked by the appointment of Godoy as First Minister. Godoy implemented several reforms that angered the ruling classes, who grouped around Fernando, the son of Charles IV. In March 1808, the Mutiny of Aranjuez took place. The classes stormed the royal palace and forced Charles IV to abdicate in favor of Fernando VII and dismiss Godoy.
In terms of external policy, Spain declared war on France, which ended with the Peace of Basel (1795). The Pact of San Ildefonso renewed the alliance between France and Spain against Great Britain. In the War of the Oranges (1801), the Spanish army invaded Portugal.
Charles III (1759-1788)
Charles III undertook several reforms, some of which were unpopular. Many did not accept the changes in customs imposed on clothing, such as capes and hats. In 1766, the Esquilache Riots erupted, a rebellion of the people of Madrid against these reforms and norms. He was an enlightened despot.
Economic Reforms under Charles III
- Modernizing agriculture, emphasizing settlement policies to repopulate abandoned areas.
- Improving communication routes.
- Promoting industry with the founding of royal factories and schools of arts and trades.
- Developing commerce.
Regalism
Regalism was a theory that sought to strengthen the power of the monarch against the Church on certain issues.
Family Pacts
The Family Pacts were alliances between Spain and France to attack Britain.
Scientific Advances
- In chemistry, Lavoisier stated the law of conservation of matter.
- In physics, Newton continued his work on universal mechanics, and Franklin experimented with electricity.
- In biology, Linnaeus established the first classification of species.
- In plants, animals, and medicine, Jenner discovered the smallpox vaccine.
- Captain Cook explored the Pacific.
- The planet Uranus was discovered.
Definitions
Privilege: A sale, special grace, or privilege enjoyed by a person.
Sovereignty: The supreme authority of government over a territory and its inhabitants.
Principle of Authority: Knowledge based on the authority of the one who transmits it.
Academia: A scientific society or group, consisting of leading artistic or literary people, dedicated to study and dissemination.