The American and French Revolutions
1. The Revolutionary Wave and the American Revolution
1.1. The Causes of the Revolutionary Wave
The end of the eighteenth century saw the old models of government, society, science, and economics become obsolete. Drastic changes were imposed:
- Absolute Monarchy gave way to more participative forms of government.
- The Middle Class became the strongest force in society.
- Developments in the sciences brought discoveries and technological information.
- The Industrial Revolution changed a primarily agricultural economy into an urban industrial one.
1.2. The Outbreak of the American Revolution
Thirteen North American colonies on the east coast started a war to obtain their independence from Great Britain.
Colonists were unhappy because they had no representation in the British Parliament and were not allowed to occupy the vast territories to the west, which were reserved for the British.
The Revolution started with the intention of the British to raise taxes, as the Americans said that they hadn’t voted for them.
In 1773, a new tax on the export of tea provoked the Boston Tea Party, which was a mutiny in Boston. This event marked the origin of the revolution.
1.3. The Creation of a New State
On July 4, 1776, representatives of the thirteen colonies drew up a declaration of independence in Philadelphia and created the United States of America. The declaration recognized the equality of people and their right to life, liberty, and happiness. National sovereignty was the means to guarantee these rights.
This decision was not recognized by Great Britain. Finally, the colonists, after a war under the leadership of George Washington and with the help of French and Spanish armies, defeated the British. The Treaty of Versailles (1783) recognized the independence of the USA.
The new state was a federal republic, and its political system was based on a constitution. The Constitution of 1787 was the first to be written in history. It established the division of powers between the President, Congress, and the Supreme Court. It also guaranteed the rights to life, liberty, and property, as well as the freedom of expression, press, and religion.
2. The French Revolution (1789-1799)
2.1. The Causes of the Revolution
Ideological: The ideas of the Enlightenment had spread, and the United States had demonstrated that these ideas could be put into practice.
Social and Economic: Due to absolutism:
- The nobility and the clergy had lost political power, which was concentrated in the monarchy.
- The nobility had financial difficulties because of their enormous expenditures.
- The middle class had no political influence, and their commercial interests suffered due to the monarch’s control of the economy.
- Peasants suffered from raised taxes.
- Urban workers lived in miserable conditions.
The Outbreak: This happened when the Estates-General was summoned to raise taxes. The Estates-General was an ancient assembly of representation that had not been called since 1614. The financial crisis in France, caused by the shortage of food and military expenditure, forced Louis XVI to summon them. He needed to raise taxes on the privileged classes. However, instead of discussing the financial situation in France, they focused on their own complaints.
2.2. The Demands of the Estates-General
Sessions of the assembly started on May 5, 1789, and centered on the method of voting. The nobility and clergy wanted to vote according to hierarchy, and the commoners (who were more numerous) opposed this. When their demands were not accepted, the Third Estate separated into a different room and proclaimed themselves the National Assembly. They declared themselves the only representatives of the whole nation and swore not to dissolve until they had agreed on a constitution.
3. The Phases of the French Revolution
3.1. The National Constituent Assembly (1789-1791)
On July 14, 1789, the people of Paris stormed the fortress prison of Bastille to obtain weapons to defend the Assembly. During the following days, the riots extended to other towns and villages in France, and the peasants attacked the properties of the nobility.
The Constituent Assembly abolished feudalism by eliminating all the privileges of lords and the clergy. They wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which recognized the rights of liberty, property, and equality. Finally, the Constitution of 1791 established the division of powers and the right to vote for every man who had possessions. With this constitution, absolutism gave way to a liberal system.
3.2. The Legislative Assembly (1791-1792)
France was now a constitutional monarchy, and the Legislative Assembly soon degenerated into chaos. There were confrontations between the moderate representatives (Girondists) and the most radical members (Jacobins), who stirred up the people in the streets. It faced the opposition of the nobles. Austria and Prussia, fearing that the revolution would spread to their territories, started a war against France. A new government was formed: the Convention.
3.3. The Convention (1792-1795)
The Convention was dominated by the moderate Girondists. It abolished the monarchy and proclaimed the republic in 1792. King Louis XVI was executed by guillotine a few months later. Shocked by these measures, other nations joined the war against revolutionary France.
In 1793, the radical Jacobins came into government, initiating what is known as “the Reign of Terror.” Robespierre was the leader of the Jacobins, and all those who opposed them were executed by guillotine.
Robespierre and his followers were eventually guillotined themselves. The Convention came to be dominated by more moderate deputies who produced a new constitution in 1795. Suffrage was once again limited to people who paid rent.
3.4. The Directory and the Consulate (1795-1799)
The government of five members, known as the Directory, started new military campaigns in Italy, Prussia, Austria, and Egypt. Napoleon Bonaparte stood out as a prestigious general and took advantage of his popularity to stage a coup d’état that replaced the Directory with a Consulate of three members. Finally, Napoleon achieved total power by becoming First Consul.