The American and French Revolutions: Birth of Modern Democracies
The Independence of the United States
The Thirteen Colonies
The first English settlers arrived in North America in 1607 and established their first colony: Virginia. By the middle of the 18th century, there were already thirteen colonies, often collectively referred to as New England.
The population of North America included approximately 1,300,000 white people of European origin, whose social differences were generally lower than those in Europe, and 350,000 black people, mainly slaves, who worked primarily on the Southern tobacco and cotton plantations.
Agriculture was the main economic activity, although in the North (New England), some factories had been established and trade was also developing.
Causes of American Independence
The American Revolution was a conflict between the colonists of New England and Great Britain that resulted in the independence of the colonies.
The causes were the following:
- Ideological: The ideas of the Enlightenment, known by the colonists, became the basis for independence. Their demands were based on Enlightenment principles like the separation of powers and popular sovereignty. Americans felt they were a nation distinct from Great Britain and formed national societies like the Sons of Liberty.
- Political: A main cause was the refusal of the British Parliament to grant representation to the colonies. Since Parliament was responsible for raising taxes, the colonists adopted the slogan “No taxation without representation” as a form of protest. Furthermore, republicanism was becoming popular in the colonies, whose inhabitants disliked King George III.
Economic Grievances and Taxation
The colonies had developed their own economic system and began viewing the metropolis (Great Britain) as an obstacle to their growth. Great Britain was interested in the colonies’ natural resources but refused to allow them to develop industry. Britain also maintained a monopoly on certain products, making it difficult for the colonists to trade with other territories.
King George III attempted to establish various laws between 1764 and 1766 to regulate taxes, including the Stamp Act (1765), a mandatory tax colonists had to pay for stamped paper used in every official document. Later, in 1773, the Tea Act was passed to control the tea trade, requiring the product to be bought exclusively from the British East India Company. This company was also exempt from declaring goods to customs.
Most of these taxes were rejected by the colonists. When three ships carrying tea arrived in Boston, some Americans captured the crew members and threw all the goods into the sea. This action, known as the Boston Tea Party (1773), was the first major protest against the new taxes.
The British government subsequently raised taxes, and the colonists refused to pay them. Great Britain sent troops, and the war began.
The American War of Independence (1775–1783)
The American War of Independence was a conflict between the Thirteen Colonies and the British Crown between 1775 and 1783. It started with the Battles of Lexington and Concord and soon became a civil war, pitting the Loyalists (supporting the British King) against the Patriots (in favor of independence).
The Patriots, led by George Washington, were initially poorly organized and lacked funds for military campaigns. However, they soon received crucial aid from the French and the Spanish.
While the British Army initiated attacks, representatives of the colonists met in the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia. They had previously held the First Continental Congress in 1774, where they agreed to boycott British products. In the Second Continental Congress, on July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was written by Thomas Jefferson.
This document enshrined the principles of the Enlightenment—equality, liberty, happiness, and popular sovereignty—challenging the power of Great Britain and, ultimately, the Ancien Régime.
These principles asserted that the government must defend these rights, and its sovereign power derived directly from the people. The people reserved the right to replace the government if it acted tyrannically.
The colonial army suffered defeats in the first battles, and by the end of 1776, the British Army had occupied Quebec, New York, parts of New Jersey, and Philadelphia. However, the Battle of Saratoga is considered the turning point in the war. The British troops (8,000 soldiers) were defeated by the 14,000 colonists led by George Washington, most of whom were volunteers. Casualties included 800 colonists, 1,600 British soldiers, and 6,000 British prisoners.
One of the final battles of the war was the Battle of Yorktown, which involved French and Spanish forces and resulted in the surrender of the British Army. The war officially concluded in 1783 with the signing of the Treaty of Paris, in which Great Britain formally accepted the independence of the United States.
The Constitution of the US (1787)
The Constitution was ratified on September 17, 1787, and was the first written constitution in history. This Constitution, with subsequent amendments, remains the current governing document of the US.
The political system adopted was a federal republic: each state retained autonomy to govern itself, while the federal government, based in Washington, was responsible for Foreign Policy, Internal Revenue, and upholding the Constitution.
The Separation of Powers was established:
- Legislative Power: Held by a Congress with two chambers, whose members were elected by limited suffrage:
- Senate: Two members from each state, directly elected by the citizens.
- House of Representatives: Elected by the citizens of each state, based on population.
- Executive Power: Held by the President, elected every four years with limited suffrage.
- Judicial Power: Held by the Supreme Court, whose members are nominated by the President.
In addition, the Constitution included fundamental rights such as the right to life, liberty, and property, as well as freedom of speech, press, and religion. George Washington was elected the first President of the US in 1789.
Consequences of American Independence
Even before independence, the US was viewed as an idealized symbol of political and social perfection, contrasting sharply with the European situation. After independence, the US proved that the democratic ideas forged in Europe could be successfully applied.
The impact of this revolution served as a stimulus to continue striving for a society based on equality. This revolution had a particularly significant impact in France, where a few years later, a revolution would also take place.
The French Revolution (1789–1799)
The French Revolution was a period of violent political and social change that resulted in the abolition of the absolute monarchy and the end of the estates system of the Ancien Régime. It took place between 1789 and 1799.
Causes of the French Revolution
The Influence of the Enlightenment
French intellectuals and the bourgeoisie supported Enlightenment ideas and sought to implement them. For instance, they demanded that all French subjects be free and equal under the law.
Political Crisis
In France, the Estates General brought together representatives of the three estates of the realm to advise the king on important issues, such as tax increases. Both the clergy (First Estate) and the nobility (Second Estate) had 300 representatives in the Estates General, and each group held one vote. In contrast, the middle class and the peasantry (Third Estate) had 600 representatives but were only granted one collective vote.
Economic Crisis
The French state was bankrupt as a result of its participation in military conflicts, such as the American War of Independence. The royal family also spent large amounts of money on palaces, luxury goods, and extravagant parties. To improve the country’s finances, Louis XVI’s ministers suggested increasing taxes, even for the privileged upper classes.
Social Crisis
By the late 18th century, all three estates of the realm were discontented with the crown, but for different reasons:
- The nobility and the clergy wanted to protect their traditional economic privileges. They refused to pay the taxes that the king’s ministers were demanding.
- The middle class and the peasantry were also discontented:
- The upper middle class (bourgeoisie) wanted to abolish the absolute monarchy because it prevented them from participating in government.
- The lower middle class (petite bourgeoisie) suffered economic difficulties caused by wars, higher taxes, and increased competition from British products.
- The peasantry also suffered economic problems caused by wars, taxes, and poor harvests. Moreover, they had to pay higher rent to the clergy and the nobility.
In addition to these problems, the middle class and the peasantry were angered by the luxurious lifestyle of the royal family and court. They also objected strongly to the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the nobility.
In the face of increasing political and economic problems, Louis XVI decided to call together the Estates General in 1789 to approve new taxes. This meeting marked the beginning of the French Revolution.
Stages of the French Revolution
The National Assembly
At the meeting of the Estates General, the Third Estate proposed a new voting system in which each representative would have an individual vote. When the king refused, the members of the Third Estate declared themselves the true representatives of the nation. They then formed a National Assembly and demanded a constitution.
The Constituent Assembly (1789–1791)
The king finally agreed to the Third Estate’s demands. A new Constituent Assembly was elected to draft a constitution.
Simultaneously, protesters began to riot in the streets of Paris, and on July 14, 1789, they attacked the Bastille (a famous political prison). Following this event, more riots broke out in the countryside and in other cities across France.
In reaction to these violent protests, the Constituent Assembly implemented a number of legal reforms:
- Abolished feudal rights.
- Approved the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen: stating that all men are born free and equal in their rights, and guaranteeing the freedom to do anything that does not harm other people.
Worried by the assembly’s reforms, Louis XVI tried to escape to Austria to seek support there. However, the revolutionaries discovered the king’s plans and prevented his escape.
In 1791, the Constituent Assembly adopted a constitution which established a constitutional monarchy, popular sovereignty, the separation of powers, and limited male suffrage.
The Legislative Assembly
After the constitution was adopted, a new Legislative Assembly was elected to implement the necessary legal changes. Two main political groups dominated this assembly:
- The Girondins believed in the revolution but represented the interests of the bourgeoisie. Their political ideas gradually became more moderate. The Girondins favored liberal economic policies that helped the middle class and wanted to maintain limited suffrage.
- The Jacobins also believed in the revolution, but their political ideas gradually became more radical. They wanted to abolish the monarchy, put the king on trial, expand suffrage, and control price rises to help the workers. As a result, they gained support from the Parisian laborers known as the sans-culottes.
Louis XVI opposed the reforms of the Legislative Assembly and asked Austria for support. In response, the assembly imprisoned the king, abolished the monarchy, and declared France a republic.
The Convention (1792–1795)
After the election of a new assembly known as the Convention, Louis XVI was accused of treason and subsequently executed. A number of European countries formed a coalition and declared war on France to prevent the revolution from spreading.
Under the leadership of Robespierre, the Jacobins took control of the government and imposed a dictatorship, known as the Terror.
The Directory (1795–1799)
By 1795, France’s moderate middle class had gained control of the country. To stop the violence and executions, they established the Directory, a more conservative government composed of five members.
The Rise of Napoleon and the Consulate
In 1799, France was still at war with other European powers, and radical revolutionaries at home sought to regain control. In response, General Napoleon Bonaparte organized a military coup (coup d’état) and established a new form of government called the Consulate, led by a group of three leaders known as consuls. Napoleon himself served as head of state and First Consul.
Napoleon Bonaparte gradually increased his power and was named First Consul for life in 1802. He declared himself Emperor of France in 1804. His achievements included:
- Domestic Policy: He established the Civil Code (Napoleonic Code), a set of laws that applied equally to all citizens, introducing new legal concepts such as civil marriage, divorce, adoption, and state education.
- International Policy: He achieved military victories to expand his empire. In the lands he conquered, Napoleon imposed enlightened and revolutionary policies, including constitutions that abolished absolute monarchy.
Consequences of the Revolutions and the Napoleonic Empire
The main consequence of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Empire was the crisis and ultimate disintegration of the Ancien Régime.
- In Politics, the French Revolution brought the end of absolute monarchy. New forms of government were established, such as constitutional monarchies and republics. New constitutions were adopted, based on popular sovereignty and the separation of powers. They established limited male suffrage and civil rights, and elections led to the birth of political groups.
- In the Economy, it marked the end of privileges: all citizens, including the nobility and clergy, were required to pay taxes and contribute to state expenses. New laws guaranteed private property rights, and free trade was established, benefiting middle-class merchants.
- Social Changes: The estates system ceased to exist.