The Alternation of Power in Spain: Dynastic Parties, Caciquismo, and Electoral Fraud (1875-1898)
The Alternation of Power in Spain (1875-1898)
The Dynastic Parties
During the democratic administration, Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, leader of the Conservative Party, had defended the monarchical restoration. The return of Alfonso XII transformed the Conservative Party, bringing together conservative political groups. Cánovas needed another party to represent the progressive side (dynastic system), and proposed its formation to Práxedes Mateo Sagasta. After an agreement, the Liberal Party was born. Both parties accepted the monarchy of Alfonso XII and the alternation in power, becoming known as the dynastic parties.
Conservatives and Liberals agreed on fundamental issues, but differed in characteristics, assuming two complementary roles. They defended the monarchy, the Constitution, private property, and the consolidation of a unitary and centralist liberal state. Both parties drew support from the social and economic elites and the middle class. They were notable minority parties, with newspapers and committees distributed throughout Spain.
Political differences were scarce. Conservatives leaned towards political immobility, defended the Church, and proposed census suffrage. Liberals advocated for universal male suffrage, social reform, and a progressive, secular state. The performance of both parties when not in power differed little; there was a tacit agreement not to enact any legislation that the opposing party, upon returning to power, would feel compelled to repeal.
The alternation of power between these dynastic parties aimed to ensure institutional stability. This shift was guaranteed because the electoral system inverted the terms of the parliamentary system. When the ruling party lost the confidence of the Cortes, the monarch called the leader of the opposition party to form a government. The new head of government then called elections to obtain a parliamentary majority.
Caciquismo and Electoral Fraud
The system of peaceful alternation lasted 20 years, marred by electoral corruption, the use of economic power, and influence over society. Caciquismo, a phenomenon prevalent in Spain, involved the adulteration of voting practices in elections. This included census suffrage, favorable treatment to urban and rural districts, and electoral manipulation and cheating. The electoral victory allowed the creation of a parliamentary majority for the ruling party.
The caciques were notables, often rural landowners, who exerted influence over local life, both socially and politically. They could be lawyers, professionals, or officials who controlled city councils. They guided the direction of the vote, rewarded loyalty with favors, and discriminated against those who did not respect their interests.
The caciques manipulated elections in accordance with the authorities, particularly the civil governors of the provinces. The set of electoral cheating practices that helped achieve systematic adulteration of election results is known as electoral fraud. These practices included falsifying the census (including dead people, preventing the living from voting), manipulating electoral events (vote-buying), and using violence to intimidate opponents.
The Development of the Turno Pacífico
Throughout 1876 and 1898, the Turno Pacífico (peaceful turn) system operated with regularity: Conservatives won six elections and Liberals won four. The system faced its first crisis after the disaster of 1898, which eroded the political standing of the dynastic parties.
The Conservative Party remained in government from 1875 to 1881. Sagasta then formed a Liberal government and introduced universal male suffrage. In 1884, Cánovas returned to power, but fearing destabilization after the death of Alfonso XII, promoted an agreement between Conservatives and Liberals known as the Pacto del Pardo. This pact supported the Regency of Maria Cristina and guaranteed the continuity of the monarchy against Carlists and Republicans.
The Liberal Party governed longer than the Conservatives. During Sagasta’s government (1885-1890), the Liberals implemented reforms to incorporate rights associated with the ideals of the 1868 revolution. The Law of Associations was approved, eliminating the distinction between legal and illegal parties and allowing the political participation of opposition forces. Slavery was abolished, jury trials were introduced, and a new civil code was launched.
The most significant reform was the implementation of universal male suffrage, expanding the electorate to men over 25 years old. However, universal suffrage was undermined by caciquismo and electoral corruption, making the democratization of the system impossible.
The Conservatives returned to power in 1892. In 1895, the Liberals returned, and Cánovas assumed the presidency until his assassination in 1897. The loss of key leaders deteriorated the party system and caused dissent.