The Age of Enlightenment: Ideas, Politics, and Economy
The Age of Enlightenment
The Old Regime
The term Old Regime was initially used by revolutionaries to describe the era preceding the French Revolution. Historians later adopted it to characterize the period between the 15th and 18th centuries.
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment was an ideological movement that emerged in opposition to the ideas of the Old Regime. It proposed:
- Faith in human reason
- Promotion of scientific advancements
- Criticism of the Old Regime
Dissemination of Enlightenment Ideas
Enlightenment ideas spread through various channels:
- Appearance of pamphlets, periodicals, and new journals.
- Salons: Social gatherings that served as centers for intellectual and social exchange.
- The First Encyclopedia (compiled by D’Alembert & Diderot): A comprehensive compendium of the knowledge of the era.
Key Thinkers of the Enlightenment
- Diderot: Emphasized the importance of reason.
- Condorcet: A philosopher and politician, a staunch defender of human rights, advocating for faith in progress.
- Holbach: A philosopher who argued that religion is a product of ignorance, reflecting a strong criticism of the Old Regime.
From Absolutism to Enlightened Despotism
Criticism of absolutism led to significant political changes.
Absolutism Defined
Under Absolutism, the king’s power was believed to be derived from God, granting him complete authority to govern, legislate, administer justice, and control the economy and the army. This system typically ignored the role of parliaments.
Enlightenment Intellectuals and Political Thought
Enlightenment intellectuals supported the separation of state and religion, and their ideas profoundly influenced both the American and French Revolutions. Key figures included:
- Voltaire: Advocated for the king’s power to be limited by Parliament, drawing inspiration from the English model.
- Montesquieu: Proposed a balance within government through the separation of powers: Executive (Government), Legislative (Parliament), and Judicial (Judges).
- Rousseau: Declared that sovereignty resides in the people, asserting that governments and rulers should therefore follow the will of the people.
- Locke: Argued that people have the right to choose their governors.
Enlightened Despotism
Enlightened Despotism was a form of government that sought to reconcile the concept of absolutism with the new ideas of the Enlightenment. In this model, the monarch continued to have absolute power but implemented reforms designed to achieve progress and the well-being of their subjects. This form of government was summarized by the principle: “Everything for the people, but without the people.”
Notable Enlightened Monarchs
- Louis XVI (France)
- Charles III (Spain)
- Jose I (Portugal)
- Catherine II (Russia)
- Joseph II (Austria)
- Frederick the Great (Prussia)
New International Relations in the 18th Century
During the 18th century, European countries sought to maintain a balance of power. Great Britain notably established itself as the dominant colonial empire.
Internal and External Commerce
Internal Commerce Growth
Internal commerce expanded significantly due to:
- An increase in agricultural and artisan products.
- Improvements in roads and the construction of canals.
External Commerce Dynamics
External commerce was characterized by:
- Colonies providing raw materials, precious metals, and plantation products.
- Enslaved Africans being forcibly sent to work in plantations and mines.
- Colonies demanding manufactured products from Europe.
- Intense commercial activity fostering the development of new credit systems, banks, and stock exchanges, which gave rise to commercial capitalism.
New Economic Policies: Mercantilism
During the 17th century, the most influential economic doctrine was Mercantilism. This theory posited that the wealth of a nation was measured by the amount of precious metals it possessed.
State Intervention in the Economy (Mercantilism)
Mercantilist policies involved significant state intervention, including:
- Forbidding the export of raw materials.
- Encouraging external trade.
- Promoting national products.
- Imposing taxes on foreign imports.
- Establishing Monopolies: Privileged companies granted exclusive trading rights.
- Occupying new territories to serve as colonies.