The Aftermath of WWI: Treaties and the Russian Revolution
The Aftermath of World War I: Treaties and Revolutions
Post-War Treaties
Treaty of Saint-Germain (October 1919)
Signed with Austria, this treaty significantly reduced the former Austro-Hungarian Empire. It led to the creation of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, and the separation of Hungary. Austria became a landlocked nation, prohibited from uniting with Germany, and its sovereignty was restricted.
Treaty of Neuilly (November 1919)
This treaty with Bulgaria resulted in the loss of its Aegean coastline, further fragmenting the political map of the Balkans.
Treaty of Trianon (June 1920)
This treaty addressed the territorial claims against Hungary.
Treaty of Sèvres (August 1920)
Signed with the Ottoman Empire, this treaty effectively dismantled the empire, reducing its territory to Anatolia and Istanbul. Former Ottoman possessions in the Middle East became mandates of the League of Nations, temporarily administered by France and England.
The League of Nations
Established in Geneva, the League of Nations was the first international organization dedicated to collective security. However, it faced inherent weaknesses from the outset. Major powers like the US and Russia did not join, and its effectiveness was hampered by the absence of a military force.
The League’s primary goals included maintaining peace, promoting transparency in international agreements, and arbitrating disputes. It also aimed to foster individual freedom and democracy.
The League reached its peak membership of sixty states in 1930. However, its influence waned as Japan, Germany, and Italy withdrew in the early 1930s, foreshadowing the outbreak of World War II. The League was formally dissolved in 1946.
The Russian Revolution (1905-1917)
Prelude to Revolution (1905)
At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia was ruled by Czar Nicholas II, an absolute monarch. The majority of the population were peasants, with limited industrial development and a low standard of living.
Three main political groups emerged: the Constitutional Democrats (KD), the Socialist Revolutionaries (SR) with anarchist leanings, and the Social Democratic Labour Party (SD) which included Mensheviks and Bolsheviks.
Russia’s defeat in the Russo-Japanese War in 1904 undermined national pride. In 1905, a popular revolution erupted, triggered by Bloody Sunday, where the Czarist army fired upon peaceful demonstrators in St. Petersburg. The unrest spread throughout the country, including mutinies among sailors, notably on the battleship Potemkin.
In response, Nicholas II granted limited liberties, including the establishment of a parliament (Duma) and voting rights. While this appeased the bourgeoisie, it failed to satisfy those demanding more radical reforms.
Within factories, workers formed councils known as Soviets, which later played a crucial role in the revolution.
The Bolshevik Revolution (1917)
Throughout 1917, Russia underwent a dramatic transformation, from an absolute monarchy to the world’s first Bolshevik-led socialist republic. This involved a bourgeois revolution in the countryside, a socialist revolution in the cities, and uprisings among non-Russian nationalities within the empire.
The Russian people yearned for peace, bread, and land. Food shortages and economic hardship were widespread, fueling discontent among all social classes, including intellectuals.
A military and popular uprising in St. Petersburg forced Czar Nicholas II to abdicate. The liberal bourgeoisie formed a provisional government, aiming to establish a republic. Simultaneously, the Soviets gained influence, creating a dual power structure. The provisional government, led by Prince Lvov, struggled to maintain control as soldiers often deferred to the Soviets. Lvov resigned due to internal conflicts, and Alexander Kerensky, a moderate socialist, became the new leader. Kerensky intended to establish a republic but hesitated to withdraw from World War I.
Bolshevik Rule and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
On October 25th (November 7th in the Gregorian calendar), the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized power with the support of the Red Guards. They stormed the Winter Palace in Petrograd, the seat of the provisional government, without the prior knowledge of the Soviets, Mensheviks, or Socialist Revolutionaries. This action led to protests and the withdrawal of these groups from the Congress of Soviets.
Lenin established the Council of People’s Commissars, with himself as chairman and other prominent Bolsheviks like Stalin and Trotsky as members. The Internationale became the anthem of the new Soviet state.
To end Russia’s involvement in World War I, Lenin signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers. This treaty came at a heavy cost, with Russia losing significant territories, including Finland, the Baltic states, and Poland, along with 26% of its population.
Under Bolshevik rule, land was redistributed to the peasants. Although elections for a Constituent Assembly were held, Lenin dissolved the Assembly when the Bolsheviks performed poorly. He then decreed that the constitution would be drafted by the Congress of Soviets, where the Bolsheviks held a majority.
Exploration of Africa
- Kitchener: Ascended the Nile River.
- Henry Stanley: Descended the Congo River to its source.