The 17th Century: Crisis, Revolution, and the Age of Baroque

Posted on Dec 13, 2025 in History

The European Economy in the 17th Century

Economic growth stagnated. Manufacturing and commerce declined, particularly in Southern Europe.

Causes of Economic Stagnation

  • The Thirty Years’ War.
  • A food crisis caused by stagnant agriculture.
  • The spread of the Black Plague.

Impact on Agriculture and Population

  • Agriculture: Constant wars caused a shortage in farm labor. There was a general decline in temperatures, which also hurt crops.
  • Population: Europe’s population grew at a very slow pace.

The Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648)

In 1618, a conflict broke out within the Holy Roman Empire in the state of Bohemia, eventually involving almost all the great powers in Europe.

Primary Causes of the Conflict

  • Religious: Tension between Protestants and Catholics.
  • Territorial: The desire by some states for independence from the Holy Roman Empire or the interest of others to increase their territories.
  • Political: The attempt by countries like France, Denmark, and Sweden to counter the Habsburg rule in Europe.

Key Outcomes

  • France, a Catholic country, entered the conflict on the Protestant side to weaken the Habsburgs.
  • The Peace of Westphalia recognized the independence of the Netherlands and proclaimed religious freedom in Europe.
  • Spain and France continued to fight until the Peace of the Pyrenees was signed, establishing French dominance in Europe.

New Political Systems

Absolute Monarchy

Exemplified by Louis XIV, power was held by the king, who received his authority from God. He created a powerful bureaucracy, a body of diplomats, and a permanent army.

The Birth of Modern Science

Philosophical Foundations

  • Empiricism: Claims that knowledge comes from experience.
    • Francis Bacon: Experience feeds our knowledge through observation.
  • Rationalism: Claims that reason is the main tool for generating knowledge.
    • René Descartes: Advocated using reason to discover universal truths. He also established methodic doubt.

Mathematics

  • René Descartes: Created analytic geometry (algebraic).
  • Blaise Pascal: Developed one of the first calculators and laid foundations for probability and statistics.
  • Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz: Invented a calculator that could multiply, and independently invented calculus.

Astronomy and Physics

  • Galileo Galilei: Formulated a heliocentric theory, which was condemned by the Church; he perfected the telescope.
  • Johannes Kepler: Proved that the planets have elliptical orbits.
  • Isaac Newton: Established the law of universal gravitation; Newton also discovered calculus.
  • Blaise Pascal: Clarified atmospheric pressure with height.
  • Evangelista Torricelli: Invented the barometer.

Biology

  • William Harvey: Described the circulatory system.
  • Robert Hooke: Perfected the microscope and discovered the cell.
  • Anton Van Leeuwenhoek: Improved the microscope.

Defining Baroque Art and Aesthetics

Baroque art has an important theatrical component, combining architecture, painting, and sculpture.

Architecture

  • Monumentalism: Disproportionate and complex composition, aiming to be spectacular, dynamic, and surprising.
  • Used curved, concave, and convex shapes to create chiaroscuro effects.
  • Buildings were excessively ornate, often integrated with urban planning (large squares or plazas decorated with fountains and landscaped avenues).

Painting

  • Absence of Sketching: Painted directly on the canvas.
  • Use of chiaroscuro (strong contrast of light and shadow) to accentuate drama.
  • Search for Movement: Asymmetrical and diagonal compositions in which figures were arranged sideways, creating foreshortening.
  • Varied themes: Religious, mythology, portraits, or landscapes.

Sculpture

Decorative and sensationalist, designed to surprise and move the viewer.

  • Realism.
  • Expressiveness: Scenes were full of feeling and emotion.
  • Dynamism: Figures seemed forced or unbalanced, capturing the essence of a fleeting moment.
  • Brightness: Effects of light and shadow added realism, complexity, and drama.

Baroque Art Centers and Key Figures

Baroque in Rome

  • Architecture: Bernini created the Piazza San Pietro and the Piazza Navona. Key figure: Francesco Borromini.
  • Sculpture: Themes were mainly religious, although mythological topics continued.
  • Painting: There were two movements: a classical movement represented by Carracci, and the naturalist movement represented by Caravaggio.

Baroque Expansion Across Europe

  • France: Characterized by large palaces.
  • Flanders: Key Flemish Baroque painter is Rubens.
  • Netherlands: Key figures include Rembrandt, Vermeer (known for Girl with a Pearl Earring), and Franz Hals (known for The Night Watch).

The Spanish Baroque

  • Architecture: The spread of the Counter-Reformation led to many religious buildings. Urban architecture focused on main squares (Madrid, Salamanca).
  • Sculpture: Primarily altarpieces, made in polychrome wood.
  • Painting: Key artists include Francisco de Zurbarán (monastic scenes), Bartolomé Esteban Murillo (religious scenes full of symbolism), and José de Ribera (known as Spagnoletto).

Diego Velázquez: Master of the Spanish Court

Velázquez’s career is often divided into three stages:

  1. Seville (Born 1599): His early work was highly realistic, focusing on scenes from low life.
  2. Madrid (1623): He moved to Madrid and was made court painter to King Felipe IV. He painted members of the royal family and courtiers like the Count-Duke of Olivares, as well as portraits of buffoons and dwarfs.
  3. Italy (First Visit, 1629–1630): After his visits to Italy, his work expanded to include portraits, nudes, landscapes, and historical events such as The Surrender.