Syntactic and Semantic Roles of Adverbs
Syntactic Roles of Adverbs
Modifying adjectives: Adverbs normally precede the adjective they modify: I’m really hungry. Exceptions: adverbs enough and ago: I’m hungry enough to…/I ate a long time ago.
Common adverb + adjective combinations are most frequent in conversation. The most frequent combinations are degree adverbs (really, quite, too, pretty, very, real) + adjectives (bad, good, nice, quick). The resulting expressions are evaluative with vague reference. Academic prose has more diversity in adverb + adjective combinations. As in conversation, the most common adverb modifiers are degree adverbs (quite, more, very), although the co-occurring adjectives express specific qualities rather than general ones (different, difficult, important).
Modifying other adverbs: Both adverbs together form an adverb phrase: really fast. This is less common than modifying adjectives, although there are some extremely common patterns, especially in conversation: pretty/so/very/too much; right now, pretty soon, right here/there, much better/more. These are used in conversation and academic texts to describe amounts/intensities or to qualify a comparison being made: a much more… In conversation, they are also used for time and place: right now, right here.
Modifying other elements (most occur as pre-modifiers; when identifying the location of a noun phrase, they occur as post-modifiers, as in the example above):
- Noun phrases: quite a surprise
- Pronouns: almost nobody
- Predeterminers: about half
- Prepositional phrases: right into
- Particles of phrasal verbs: right into
- Numerals: approximately
- Other measurement expressions: roughly
As complements of prepositions: Normally denote time: since then, before now, under there.
As clause elements: adverbials: Three major types:
- Circumstance: Add information about the action or state described in the clause; give details (time, manner, and place): He jumped up quickly and rather frightened.
- Stance: Convey the speaker’s/writer’s judgment of the proposition in the clause: definitely.
- Linking: Connect stretches of text: therefore, however.
Adverbs standing alone: Possible in conversation; can serve as a complete utterance; can also serve to express or emphasize agreement: definitely, totally… Sometimes they are related by ellipsis to previous utterances. They can be used as questions: Really? Seriously?
Semantic Categories of Adverbs
Place: Express distance, direction, or position: there, far.
Time: Express position in time, frequency, duration, and relationship: now, already, always.
Manner: Give information about how an action is performed; many have –ly suffixes, taking their meaning from the adjective they come from: quickly, fast, well. Can also be used as modifiers, giving a description that is integrated into a noun phrase: …[Morgan] coolly talking about…
Degree: Describe the extent of a characteristic; can be used to emphasize that a characteristic is either greater or less than some typical level: slightly, almost.
Amplifiers/intensifiers: Increase intensity. Some modify gradable adjectives and indicate degrees on a scale (extremely, so, very, more). Others indicate an endpoint on a scale (absolutely, totally, completely and quite (sense of completely)). In exclamatory sentences: How cruel! In conversation, used to convey irony. When used as amplifiers, some manner adverbs can lose their literal meaning (awfully (very), perfectly).
Diminishers/downtoners: Decrease the effect of the modified item (less, slightly, rather, quite (to some extent), somewhat).
Choices among degree adverbs as modifiers: Conversation: uses many informal amplifiers (bloody, damn, totally, absolutely, real, really). Academic: more formal amplifiers (extremely, highly, entirely, fully). Most common amplifiers in conversation and academic texts (very, so); they occur with many different adjectives, normally positive words (good, nice); academic texts have a greater variety of adjectives that occur with them (straightforward, pronounced).
Additive/restrictive:
- Additive: Show that one item is being added to another (too, also). Context is often necessary to determine the intended comparison: My…too.
- Restrictive: Similar to additive adverbs; focus attention on a certain element of the clause. Serve to emphasize the importance of one part of the proposition, restricting the truth of it either primarily or exclusively to that part (only the ones…, especially…).
Stance: Divided into:
- Epistemic: Express a variety of meanings (certainty or doubt (probably), commenting on the reality or actuality of a proposition (actually), showing that a proposition is based on some evidence, without specifying the exact source (supposedly), showing the limitations on a proposition (typically), conveying imprecision (also called hedge adverbs) (kind of). Many of these hedges occur as adverbials; are often used to show imprecision of word choice (like) or with numbers, measurements, and quantities (approximator hedges; nearly, about).
- Attitude: Speaker’s/writer’s emotional attitude toward a proposition (unfortunately, surprisingly).
- Style: Comment about a speaker’s manner of speaking (frankly, sincerely, honestly, simply).
Linking: Make connections between sections of discourse; show how the meaning of the different sections are interrelated (thus, however, furthermore).
Other meanings: Kindly (courtesy adverb), functions similarly to the insert please to mark a request as polite; most common in fiction, often in an ironic way.
The Function of Adverbs
They serve two major roles:
- Modifiers (integrated into an element of the clause); they normally modify an adjective or another adverb: I’m nearly sure that…
- Adverbials (can be an element of the clause); they serve typical adverbial functions, e.g., provide information about time, tell the level of certainty of a clause (surprisingly he gave us permission to…). Sometimes adverbs can function as both, modifiers (he did surprisingly well in the exam) or adverbials (surprisingly they let us use the dictionary in the exam).
The Formation of Adverbs
Four main ways:
Simple adverbs: Not derived from another word (well, too, rather, quite, soon, here). They can sometimes be used as another part of speech, e.g., fast (adjective (fast runner)/adverb (fast enough)). Some originated as compounds but the independent meaning of both parts is lost (already).
Compound adverbs: Formed by combining two or more elements into a single word: nowhere, anyway.
Adverbs derived by suffixation: Many are formed by adding –ly to an adjective (most productive form): normally. Not all words ending in –ly are adverbs; they can be adjectives (weekly). Other common suffixes to form new adverbs: –wise (added to nouns: likewise, otherwise). –ward(s) (added to nouns and prepositions: seawards, afterwards).
Fixed phrases: Are phrases that never vary in form: of course, kind of, at last.
Comparative and Superlative Forms of Adverbs
The same as adjectives, gradable adverbs can be marked as comparative or superlative with an inflection (faster) or by the use of more or most. Inflected comparative and superlative forms are not as frequent as with adjectives. Superlative forms of adverbs are very rare, and comparatives are rarely used (harder, oftener).
Comparative and Superlative Forms of Adjectives
Can be marked to show comparative and superlative degree, either inflectionally (better) or phrasally (by using more than one word: more difficult).
One-syllable adjectives normally take an inflectional suffix. The addition of –er or –est can involve regular spelling changes to the adjective stem. The silent –e is omitted before adding the suffix (close/*closest). The final –y is changed to –i if a consonant precedes it (tidy-tidier). When an adjective ends with a single vowel letter followed by a single consonant, it usually doubles the final consonant (wet-wetter). Adjectives with irregular comparative and superlative forms: good-better-best, bad-worse-worst, far-further-furthest. Longer adjectives often take phrasal comparison, using the degree adverbs more and most (more famous); this is an exception with some two-syllable adjectives like: likelier-more likely.
Comparative Clauses and Other Degree Complements
Complements of adjectives: Comparative and degree complements of adjectives can be prepositional phrases or clauses.
Six major types of degree complements:
- adjective-er + than + phrase/clause or more/less + adjective + than + phrase/clause: The rooms were dirtier than the ones in the other hotel. Most common type; most common in academic prose.
- as + adjective + as + phrase/clause: The game was as boring as the one we…
- so + adjective + that-clause: The food was so nice that…
- so + adjective + as to-clause: The girl was so risky as to ride her bike…
- too + adjective + to-clause: The water was too cold to go swimming.
- adjective + enough + to-clause: The beer isn’t cold enough to drink.
Complements of adverbs: The clauses and phrases which occur as degree complements with adjectives can also occur with adverbs; the adverb functions as an adverbial.
- adverb-er + than-phrase/clause or more/less + adverb + than-phrase/clause: I’ll be back sooner than you think.
- as + adverb + as-phrase/clause: As soon as I can, I’ll go to visit you.
- so + adverb + that-clause: He rode so fast that he fell.
- so + adverb + as to-clause: He went so far away as to think about his past life.
- too + adverb + to-clause: It was too late to be called.
- adverb + enough + to-clause: It is late enough to go to bed.
The Use of Phrasal and Inflectional Markings
Inflectional marking by comparatives and superlatives is most common in academic texts and least in conversation. The comparative degree is used double as superlative. Common inflected comparative adjectives: best, easier, older, higher, lower, greatest, smaller.
Phrasal comparison: Less common than inflectional marking. Most common in academic texts. Common phrasally marked comparative and superlative forms: more likely, more difficult, more important, most important.